římská říše

Založení impéria

_{Hlavní název:Římská republika}

TheendoftheRomanRepublicwasaturbulentera.In44BC,GaiusJuliusCaesarwasassassinated,andhiswillappointedOctavianashisheir.Octavian,whowas19yearsoldatthetimeandwasintheGreekApolloniaArmy,immediatelymarchedbacktoRomeafterlearningaboutit.RomeatthistimeisinthehandsofBrutusandCassius,therepublicanelderswhomurderedCaesar.OctavianmanagedtoformanalliancewithCaesar'scolleaguesMarkAnthonyandLepida,whichisknownasthelatterthreeallianceinhistory.ThethreebegantocleanuptheheresyoftheSenate,andmorethanahundredsenatorsandthousandsofknightswerekilled.AntonyandOctavianledanarmytopursueBrutusandCassiuswhohadfledtotheeast.In42BC,BrutusandCassiuscommittedsuicideinthebattleofPhilippi.OctavianreturnedtoRome,andAnthonywenttoEgypttoallywithCaesar’slover,CleopatraVII(Cleopatra),QueenofthePtolemaicdynastyofEgypt.Atthispoint,RomebelongedtoOctavianinthewestandAnthonyintheeast.

AnthonyfocusedontheParthianwarintheEast,andalwaysmaintainedacloserelationshipwiththeQueenofEgypt.OctavianmadealotofpeopleinRome,consolidatedpower,andatthesametimeslanderedAntony,claimingthathehadcolludedwithforeignforcesandrebelledagainstRome.Thecontradictionbetweenthetwosideshasbecomeincreasinglyfierce.Finally,inthefirst32years,OctaviandeclaredwaronAnthony.InSeptember31BC,thecoalitionforcesofAnthonyandtheQueenofEgyptfoughtOctavianatCapeActinginGreece,knownastheBattleofActing.Asaresult,AnthonywasdefeatedandfledbacktoEgyptwiththequeen.Inthefirst30years,whenOctavianinvadedEgypt,AntonyandtheQueencommittedsuicide.TheQueenandCaesar'sillegitimatesonCaesarLeonwasexecuted,andthePtolemaicdynastyperished.Atthispoint,EgyptbecameaprovinceofRome.

V prvních 27 letech, Octavian chytře využíval politické dovednosti, aby se přihlásil vnějšímu světu, že by všechny pravomoci obnovily veřejnost; na druhé straně předstíral, že je vynucen žádostí Senátu a občana, aby přijal, že ten byl zcela protikladný k životu v celé republice. plavčík, vrchní kněz atd., prohlašující se za „prvního občana“, nejvyššího velitele (nebo v překladu „generál Triumph“, „velký maršál“) a získal tituly „Augustus“ (což znamená „posvátný“) a „Otec vlasti“ udělené Senátem. Toto úžasné představení Octaviana oznámilo založení Římské říše.

Přechod a vývoj

_{Hlavní název:JuliaClaudiussub>}

DuringthereignofAugustus,hereformedthemilitary,reducedarmaments,andestablishedthefirststandingarmyandguardsintheempire;setupacabinettoassisttheemperorinhandlinggovernmentaffairs;The"NationalTaxationBureau"wasestablishedtocontrolthefinancialpower;theadministrativedivisionswerereorganized,andtheprovincesoftheSenateandtheemperorweredividedtoestablishtheemperor'shighestmilitarypower.AugustususeddiplomaticmeanstoestablishfriendlyrelationswithParthiaandArmenia.

Inthefirst19years,theempireconqueredallofSpain.Beginning16yearsago,AugustussenttroopstotheeasternAlpsandtheupperreachesoftheDanube,settinguptwoprovinces,RetiaandNorric,andthensenttroopstothemiddleandlowerreachesoftheDanube,settinguptwoprovinces,PannoniaandMessia.Inthefirst12to5years,thelandbetweentheRhineandtheElbewasgraduallyconquered,butthenewlyconqueredlandcontinuedtoriot.In9years,thegeneralVaruswasambushedinthebattleoftheTeutoburgForesttosuppresstheGermanuprisingandwasannihilated.AugustushadtoabandonthelandbetweentheRhineandtheElbe.Sincethen,theexpansionoftheRomanEmpiretoWestGermanyceased.Augustusdidnotcarryoutanymajorexpeditions,andthefollowingtwocenturieswerealongperiodofstability,calledthe"RomanPeace"period.

In14years,AugustusdiedandpasseddownhisadoptedsonTiberius.Inordertostrengthentheimperialpower,Tiberiusabolishedthelegislativepowerandvotingpowerofthecitizens'assembly,andconcentratedtheguardstoRometodefendtheemperor.Tiberiushadacoldandharshpersonality.Inthelaterperiodofhisreign,heactedarbitrarilyandrepeatedlysanctionedagainstorcriticizedtheemperor'swordsanddeeds.HedemandedthattheSenatecouldonlyexpressthesameopinionsashim,andtherelationshipbetweentheSenateandthefamilywasstrained.HeretiredtoCapriin26years,whereheruledRomefornearlytenyears.In37years,TiberiusdiedofCapri.

AfterthedeathofTiberius,theGuardsmadeCaligulatheemperor.ThisisthefirsttimeinRomanhistorythatanarmyhassupportedanemperor.Intheearlydaysofhisreign,Caligulawasgenerousandgenerous,andwasuniversallylovedbythepeople.Inthelaterperiod,hesuddenlysufferedfrommentalillness,ignoredstateaffairs,indulgedinentertainmentactivities,becamemoody,brutalandbloodthirsty,oftenexecutedSenatemembersandnoblesandconfiscatedtheirproperty.For40years,helecturedinRometopromotepersonaldictatorshipanddeifytheemperor.In41,Caligulawaskilledbytheguards.

AfterCaligula'sdeath,theguardssupportedhiselderlyuncleClaudiusascendedthethrone.DuringClaudius’sreign,hereformedgovernmentagenciesandestablishedabureaucraticsystem:thecentralgovernmenthasthreedepartments,namelytheSecretariat(inchargeofinternalaffairs,military,andforeignaffairs),theFinanceDepartment(inchargeoffinances),andtheJudicialDepartment(inchargeoflaws)..Improvedthestatusofknights,andgrantedRomancitizenshiptoresidentsoftheprovince.Asaresult,provincialnoblescanalsoserveasseniorofficialsorentertheSenate.Intermsofexternalexpansion,ithasconqueredsouthernBritainandMauritania.ClaudiusalsobuilttheportofOstiaatthemouthoftheTiberRiverandalarge-scalewaterpipeline.In54years,ClaudiusmaybepoisonedtodeathbyQueenAgrippinatheYounger.

AfterClaudiusdied,hisadoptedsonNerocametothethrone.DuringNero'sreign,heformulatedanumberofpoliciesthatbenefitedthecommonpeople.TheappointmentofthefamousplayerCorbrosuccessfullyresolvedthecrisisbetweenParthiaandArmenia.Butatthesametime,hewasalsoafamoustyrantinRomanhistory,cruelandtyrannical,andmurderedmothersandwives.Heispassionateaboutartandconsidershimselfa"greatartist".In64,afirebrokeoutinRome,andalmostallofthecitywasburneddown.Afterthefire,Nerobegantobuildanewpalacenamed"GoldenPalace".RumorsspreadinRome:Nerosetfiretobuildanewpalace.Inordertoeliminaterumors,NerousedChristiansasscapegoatstohuntandkillthem.In1966,theJewishWarbrokeoutinPalestine.Atthistime,NerowenttoGreeceforalongarttour.AsNerofellinpower,uprisingsagainstNerobrokeouteverywhere.InMarch1968,theGovernorofGaulWendéxandtheGovernorofSpainGarbarebelled.InMay,Wendikeswasdefeatedanddied.Atthistime,theSenatedeclaredNerotobeapublicenemyofthecountry,andNerocommittedsuicidewhilefleeing.

_{Hlavní název:Rok čtyř císařů}

AfterNero'sdeath,theSenaterecognizedGarbaasemperor.DuetoGarba'soldageandfrailty,unabletocontrolthesituation,leadinggeneralsaroundtheworldhaveastrongsenseofself-respect.InJanuary1969,Vitrius,governorofLowerGermania,proclaimedhimselfemperor,whileGarbawaskilledbyhissubordinatesOtto,whomadehimselfemperor.InMarch,VitriussenttroopstocompetewithOttoforthethrone,andOttocommittedsuicideindefeat.InJuly,WeiPaxiang,thegeneralwhowasquellingtheJewishrebellion,wasadoptedasemperorbymanytroops.InOctober,WeiPaxiangdefeatedVitriusandendedthebattleforthethrone.

Stabilizace a konsolidace

_{Hlavní část:FlavicDynasty}

InDecember69,WeiPaxiangbecameemperor.AfterWeiPaxiangbecameemperor,theempirewasfacingacrisis,andhefirstsuppressedtheuprisingsinvariousplaces.In70years,successfullysuppressedtheBadawirebellion.Inthesameyear,hissonTituscapturedJerusalem,massacredalargenumberofJews,andburneddowntheJewishtemple.TheJewishWarended.Inordertomakeupforthefinancialproblemscausedbythecivilwar,WeiPaxiangstrengthenedtaxationmanagementandincreasedprovincialtaxestorectifythemilitaryandinternalaffairs.Duringhisreign,hevigorouslystrengthenedthestatusoftheprovince.In1973,headdedthenoblesofvariousprovincestotheSenateandgrantedRomancitizenshiptomanynoblesoftheprovinces,allowingthenoblesoftheprovincestoparticipateinpoliticsextensively.

In1979,WeiPaxiangdiedandhissonTitusbecamethethrone.Titusismoderateinpolitics.Inthefirstyearofhistenure,MountVesuviuseruptedandburiedPompeii;afterthat,firesandplaguesbrokeoutinRome.Titusranaround,tiredofdisasterreliefwork.

In1981,TitusdiedandhisyoungerbrotherDomitiancametothethrone.Domitianvigorouslypromotedtheimperialpower,consolidatedtheheadofstatesystem,reformedthecabinet,andfurtherattractedtheknightlyclasstoparticipateinpolitics.Intermsofexternalexpansion,heachievedsuccessinSouthGermany,buildingtheGermanGreatWall,connectingtheRhineandtheupperreachesoftheDanubeintoonebodyandincorporatingitintotheempire'sterritory.However,helosttwiceinthewaragainstDaciaandfinallygavegiftstomakepeace.Domitianwasanautocraticdictatorship,whoregardedhimselfas"theLordandGod"anddespisedtheSenate.In1989,Domitianexecutedalargenumberofeldersanddignitariesunderthepretextofsupportingtherebellion,whichcausedpanicamongthepeople.In1996,Domitiandiedinacourtcoup.

Prosperita

_{Hlavní název:AntonianDynasty}

AfterDomitian'sdeath,theSenateelectedNerva,anoldandheirlessformerconsulasemperor.Nervarespectedandtreatedthesenatorswell,andtheauthorityoftheSenatewasrestoredtosomeextent.Buthewasquiteunpopularwiththearmyandmilitarycommanders.Inordertowinthesupportofthearmy,NervaselectedtheoutstandingGermanicgovernorTrajanashisadoptedsoninthesecondyearofhisascension,successfullyquellingthearmy'sdissatisfaction.

In1998,NervadiedandTrajancametothethrone.Hewasthefirstemperorfromaprovincialnobleman.TrajancontinuedtoimplementNerva'spolicyoftreatingtheelderswell,vigorouslyconstructingpublicfacilities,andactivelyexpandingabroad.Duringhisreign,theterritoryoftheRomanEmpirereacheditsmaximum.From101onwards,TrajanledhisarmytoinvadeDacia,andin106itwascompletelyconquered,andDaciaprovincewasestablished.Trajanheldagrandtriumphalceremony,announcingthecelebrationof123days,andbuilttheancientRomanTrajanPillar.In105,TrajanoccupiednorthernArabiaandestablishedArabprovinces.In114,TrajanannexedArmeniaandestablishedtheArmenianProvince.Afterthat,TrajancontinuedtoadvanceeastwardanddefeatedtheParthianarmy.In116,heoccupiedthecapitalofParthianTaisifeng.Attheendoftheyear,Trajan'ssoldiersarrivedinthePersianGulf,andhewastheonlyRomancommanderwhohadreachedhere.In117,Trajan'sdiseasewasseverelywithdrawn,andtwoprovinces,AssyriaandMesopotamia,wereestablished.Beforehedied,Hadrianwasannouncedasanadoptedson.

AfterTrajan'sdeath,Hadrianascendedthethrone.Hadrianturnedoffensivetodefensive,givingupthelandthatTrajanhadconqueredintheeast.DuringHadrian'sreign,hetraveledmanytimes,andhisfootprintscoveredalmosttheentireempire.Duringthisperiod,hebuilttheeast-west"Hadrian'sWall"inthenorthernpartoftheBritishIslestodefendagainsttheintrusionofthebarbariansinScotland;unifiedrecruitmentstandards,strengthenedthequalityofthearmy,andestablishedatemporaryarmysystem.Hadrianfurtherenhancedtheimperialpower,takingthewilloftheemperorasthesupremelaw,andorderedjuriststocompilethe"PermanentEdict"asthelegalbasisoftheempire;vigorouslystrengthenthestatusofknightsandmakeitaspecificbureaucraticclass;continueandstrengthentheprovinceTheRomanizationofthecountrynarrowedthedistancebetweentheprovincialcitiesandRome.HealsorebuiltthefamousPantheoninRome.In131,HadrianbannedJewsfromcircumcision,SabbathandreadingJewishlaws.ThistriggeredaJewishuprising.TheRomanarmykilled580,000Jewsintwoyearstosuppresstheuprising.HadrianbannedJewsfromlivinginJerusalem,andalargenumberofJewshaveneversettledinJerusalem.Hadrianattachesgreatimportancetotheissueofheirs.Hechosea52-year-oldmemberofParliament,AntonniAsylum,ashisadoptedson,andaskedhimtoadopt18-year-oldmemberofParliamentMarcoAureliusand7-year-oldLuciusViru.Siistheadoptedson.

In138,Hadrianpassedaway,andhisadoptedson,AntoniAsylum,tookthethrone.DuringAntoniAsylum’sreign,heconvergedonthebordersandwasgenerallyfine;hehadagoodrelationshipwiththeSenate,hadagoodrelationshipwiththeSenate,andenjoyedapeacefulandprosperousperiodinRomeformorethan20years.

In161,AntoniusPiusdied,andthethronewasinheritedbytwoadoptedsons,VerusandMarcoAurelius.ThiswasthefirsttimeinRomanhistorythatthetwoemperorsruledtogether.MarcoAureliusisthefamous"philosopheremperor"andthemainexpounderofStoicphilosophy.Heistheauthorof"Meditations",whileVerusismoremediocre.

Whenthetwocametothethrone,thesituationontheborderoftheempirewassevere.ParthiainvadedArmeniain162.Afterfouryearsofhardwork,VerusrepelledParthiaandannexedMessofrom164to165.NorthofPotamia.In167,theGermansinvadedagain,andthetwoemperorshadtoleadtheirtroopstoconquer.Duetofinancialconstraints,thesilvercontentofthedinarsilvercoinwasfurtherreduced.In169,Velusdied,andtheempirewasrestoredtothesituationofanemperor.InordertorelievethepressureoftheGermansontheempire,MarcoAureliusallowedthemtosettleontheborderoftheempire,layingahiddendangerforfuturebarbarianinvasions.In175,thegeneralAvidiusCassiuslaunchedarebellionintheeasternpartoftheempire,anditwasquicklysuppressed.MarcoAureliusthenlaunchedawaragainsttheGermansinanattempttoannexBohemia.In180,justbeforesuccess,MarcoAureliusdiedofillness.

MarcoAureliuswasarelativelygreatemperor.Duringhisreign,hewasdiligentandlovingthepeople,activelyhandledgovernmentaffairs,andguardedthebordersoftheempire.However,duringthisperiod,theGermanicbarbarianincursionsintensified,theborderdefenselinehasbeeninastateoflosingground,andthedomesticeconomicsituationisdeterioratingdaybyday.Afterhisdeath,theRomanEmpiregraduallybegantodecline.

Fromprosperitytodecline

AfterthedeathofMarcoAureliu,hisson,KangMaode,succeededtothethrone.Intheearlydaysofhisreign,Commodoredidnotdaretoindulge,andrespectedtheeldersappointedbyMarcoOleliutoassisthimduringhislifetime.In182,hissisterLucillaandsomeelderstriedtoassassinatehim.Aftertheincident,heexecutedeveryoneinvolvedintheassassinationandmanyinnocentpeople.Fromthenon,KangMaodenolongertrustedtheelders,andhandedoverthepoliticalaffairstothefavoredministerandthecommanderoftheguards.Inthelatereign,hewascruelandsuspicious.Helikedcircus,wrestlingandothersportsactivities.HeclaimedtobethereincarnationofHercules.

Commod'srulecauseddissatisfactionamongthepeople,andmanypeopleconspiredtoassassinatehim,whichalsomadehimmoreweirdandtyrannical.Attheendof192,whenCommodoreannouncedthathewouldbedressedasagladiatorastheconsul,hismistressgavehimaglassofpoisonandwassubsequentlymurderedbyawrestlersentbythecommanderoftheGuards.

_{Hlavní název:The Yearofthe Five Emperors}

KangAfterthedeathofProud,theGuardsadoptedthecitygovernorPettinaxasemperor.PettinaxactivelyquelledthenegativeimpactofCommodoreontheempire,butwhenhewantedtocleanupmilitarydiscipline,hewasimmediatelykilledbytheguards.

AfterPetinax'sdeath,theGuardsunexpectedlyannouncedthatthethronewouldbeauctioned,andthosewhobidmorecanbecometheemperor.Aftercompetitionamongmanypeople,Julianusboughtthethroneatapricesatisfiedbytheguards.ButJulianusdidnothaveafollower,andthearmydismissedhimevenmore.TheSyriangovernorNageltooktheleadinestablishinghimselfasemperor,andthenthegovernorofPannoniaandtheNorthAfricanSeverusrebelled.HeledthetroopsquicklytoRome.Themoraleoftheguardswaslowandtheywerequicklydefeated.TheSenateinsteaddeclaredSeverusemperor.TheGuardsexecutedJulianustorequestSeverus'forgiveness.AfterenteringRome,Severusexecutedalltheoriginalguardsonchargesoftreason,andformedalargernewguardwithhisownsoldiers.

Krize začíná

_{Hlavní název:SeverusDynasty}

AfterSeverusbecameemperor,heimmediatelywenttowarwithNigel,whohadalreadybecomeemperor.In194,NigelwasdefeatedatIssus.In197,SeverusdefeatedtherebelliousBritishGovernorAlbanusinLyon,andthecivilwarfrom193ended.Severuswasasoldierandhewasaccustomedtoactingarbitrarily.HedidnotputtheSenateinhiseyesandremovedmanysenatorsfromimportantpositionsandreplacedthemwithcroniesandknights.Severus’rulewasbackedbythearmy.HeexpandedhisarmyaggressivelyandexpandedtheRomanarmytoanunprecedentedlevel.Mostofthemwereforeigners,andtheyusedhighratestowinoverthearmy,andhewasnotstingywithrewards.Severusachievedconsiderablemilitarysuccess.Inadditiontoendingthecivilwar,healsodefeatedParthiain197andonceagainannexednorthernMesopotamiaandsetitasaprovince.Severustransitionedtheheadofstatetoanabsolutemonarchy.Thejuristsatthetimesaidthat"heisnotsubjecttoalllawsandistherulerofanyone,andtheempireishisproperty."In208,SeverussenttroopstoBritaintoconquersouthernScotland.In211,hediedofillnessinYork.Attheendofhislife,hislastwordstothetwosonswere:"Mayyourbrothersgetalongwitheachothersothatthesoldierscangetrichanddon’tcareaboutothers."

AfterSeveru’sdeath,thetwosonsCaracallaandGettaAtthesametimeascendedthethrone.Caracallawasanothertyrant,andthefollowingyear,hekilledhisbrotherGetaandhiscomrades.Hiswife,father-in-lawandmanyfamouspeoplewerealsokilled.CaracallacontinuedtoimplementSeverus’policyofpreferentialtreatmenttothearmy.Inordertoincreaseincomeandexpandtaxsources,CaracallaissuedtheAntoninusedictin212,grantingallfreecitizensintheempiretherightofRomancitizenship.In217,CaracallawaskilledbytheguardswhenhesetouttoParthia.

AfterCaracallawaskilled,thecommanderoftheGuards,Maclinus,establishedhimselfastheemperor,andhissonDiadomenianwastheco-emperor.AfterMaclinussucceededtothethrone,heacceptedextremelyunfavorableterms,endedthewarwithParthia,andreducedmilitaryexpenditures,whichledtodissatisfactionwiththearmy.In218,Severus’wifeandsisterJuliaMisaincitedarebellion,andbothMaclinusandDiadomenianwerekilledinAsiaMinor.

Misathenmadehis13-year-oldgrandsonElagabalustheemperor.ElgabalusworshipedtheEasterngods,waslicentious,ignoredstatepolitics,andhadaverypoorrelationshipwiththeSenateandthearmy.In222,MisaacquiescedinkillinghimbytheGuardsandmadehis14-year-oldgrandsonAlexanderSeverusemperor.DuringthereignofAlexanderSeverus,relationswiththeSenateimproved.In231,AlexanderSeveruswenttotheeasttofightagainsttheemergingempireofSasanianPersia.Thesituationimprovedslightly,andherushedtothewesttoresisttheGermanicinvadingsouth.In235,thearmyrebelledandAlexanderSeveruswaskilled.

Crisisclimax

_{Hlavní část:Krize třetího století}

AfterthedeathofAlexanderSeverus,thearmyadoptedThracianMaximinusasemperor.Maximinuscamefromabarbarianandwasdespisedbyothers,sohetreatedtheSenateandthepeoplewithbrutalmethods.In238,theSenatesecretlyinstructedtheguardstokillhim.Inthesameyear,theSenateintroducedfouremperors,allofwhichwerekilled.GordianIII,whosubsequentlytookthethrone,wasonly13yearsoldandwasapuppetoftheGuards.In244,thearmysupportedPhiliptheArab.In247,Philiporganizedthecelebrationofthe1000thanniversaryofthefoundingofRome.In249,PhilipwaskilledbytherebelgeneralDecius.DeciusdiedinthewarwiththeGothsin251.DuringthereignofGallus,aprotractedplaguebrokeout.Gallusdiedatthehandsofsoldiersin253.TheascendedValerianandhissonGalienusledtwoarmies,oneresistingSassanidPersiaintheeast,andtheotherresistingtheGermansinthewest.Thiswasthefirsttodividetheempirefromeasttowest.In260,thegeneraloftheRhineregion,PersDumusestablishedhimselfasemperor,establishedtheGaulEmpire,andruledGaul,Britain,andmostofSpain.Inthesameyear,ValerianwascapturedwhilefightingPersia,buttheresultisunknown.In267,Palmyraintheeastbecameindependent,splittingpartoftheeasternprovinces.

Atthistime,thechaosoftheRomanEmpirereacheditsextreme.Theempirewasdividedintothree,andthecentralgovernmentwasalmostparalyzed.Theemperornotonlyhadtofaceexternalenemies,butalsosuppressedtherebelliousarmiesandrebelliouspeoplefromtimetotime.Inaddition,thearmycontinuestosupportthenewemperor,hopingformorerewards.Iftherewardisnotgenerous,theemperorwillbekilled.In268,GaryEnnusreformedthemilitary,dismissedothermilitarypositions,andestablishedanewreservearmystationedinMilan,withMilanasthemilitarycapitaloftheempire.ThereformedarmysuccessfullydefeatedtheEasternGothicoffensive.In269,theBhagadamovementbrokeoutintheGaulregionbyslavesandfarmers'uprisings.Theinsurgentsestablishedthemselvesasemperorsandmintedcoins,whichlasteduntil286.

The Illyrian Emperors

Galiennus byl zručný svými muži méně než rok po reformě armády a Claudius se dostal na trůn. Nejprve porazil Alamani, pak porazil mocnou gotickou armádu a získal titul „Feature Brother Vant“.

ClaudiusIIdiedoftheplaguein270,andAurelianascendedthethrone.AurelianstrucktheGothsagaininPannoniaandendedtheinvasionoftheGoths.ThenheledthearmytodefeatthePalmyraEmpire,regainedAsiaMinorandSyria,thenattackedthecityofPalmyra,capturedPalmyraQueenZinobia,andtookPalmyrain273.Thecitywasrazedtotheground.Inthesameyear,theGaulEmperorTetricusI,inordertosuppressthedomesticuprising,appealedtoOlelianforhelp,expressinghiswillingnesstogiveupindependence,andGaul,BritainandSpainwerereintegratedintotheempire.Aurelianreunitedtheempire,sohewascalledthe"WorldRestorer".Inordertostrengthenthedefense,Aurelianbuiltanewwall20kilometerslongand6metershighforRome,andabandonedDaciainordertousethenaturaldangersoftheDanubetodefend.

In275,AurelianwaskilledduringanexpeditiontoSasanianPersia,andtheSenateappointedClaudiusTacitusasemperor.ThiswasthelasttimethattheSenateelectedanemperor.Tacitusdiedayearafterhisreign,andthearmysupportedProbus.ProbussmashedtheGermanicinvasionofGaulinthreewaysandexpelledtheVandalsfromtheBalkans.

In282,ProbuswaskilledandMarcoAureliusCarusascendedthethrone.CarusonceagaindefeatedtheGermansinthenorthandattackedPersia,onceoccupyingTessifon.In283,Carusdiedviolently,andhissonCarinussucceeded.In284,thecommanderoftheGuards,Diocletian,rebelledanddefeatedKarinusnearBelgradeandbecametheruleroftheempire.

Stabilitaandreform

_{Hlavní část:Spoluvládní systém čtyř císařů}

AfterDiocletianbecameemperor,hechangedtheheadofstatetoarealmonarchy.Themonarchworeacrownandsilkrobe,andhissubjectswererequiredtobowdowntothemonarch;themonarchwascalled"Lord"andwasworshipedasagod.DiocletianclaimedtobetheincarnationofJupiter.Theimperialpowerhasreacheditslimit.In286,DiocletianawardedGeneralMaximianthetitleof"Augustus"andappointedhimtheco-emperorofthewesternpartoftheempire.In287,thecommanderoftheBritishFleet,Karlusius,rebelledandclaimedtheemperor,occupyingthenorthwestofBritainandGaul.Itwassettledin296.In288,DiocletiansuccessfullyconsolidatedtheEuphratesRiverdefenselineandwasawardedthetitleof"PersianConqueror"bytheSenate.Inthesameyear,heledhisarmybackwestfromAntioch,Syria,andwenttotheDanubetoassistMaximianwhowasinGaul.In290,theGaulsuppressionbanditendedandonceagainwenttoSyriatosuppresstherebellionoftheArabnomads.In291,repelledthenativeswhoinvadedtheempireintheupperreachesoftheNile.In292,hereturnedtotheDanubeandrepelledthenorthernGermanicbarbarianSalmatianswhohadgoneacrossHenan.In293,Diocletianfirstbegantoimplementthe"fouremperorsco-governancesystem",asfollows:

Název

Císařovo jméno

Kapitál

Okres

Diokleciánův tip: dva srpnové (první císař) na východě a na západě říše každý jmenoval císaře (zástupce císaře) a srpen vládl o 20 let později, musí se abdikovat, uspěli u původních dvou srpnových bodůvašich pirátů jako naše části, ale svěřit obranu říše čtyřem císařům.Diokleciánova pozice je stále nejvyšší mezi čtyřmi .

Diocletianfirstreducedthesizeoftheprovinces,dividedabout100provinces,andestablishedadministrativeregionstocommandmorethanadozenprovinces,andthelocalgovernorsdidnotholdmilitaryposts.Diocletianreformedthemilitaryanddividedthearmyintofrontierguardsandfieldforces.Thefrontierguardswereusedtoresistforeignenemyinvasions,andthefieldtroopswereusedtosuppresspeople'suprisingsandmilitarymutinies,aswellasmobileoperationsagainstlarge-scaleforeignenemies.Healsoreducedthesizeofthecorpsandincreasedthenumberofcorpsfordispatch.SinceDiocletiandividedtheempire,eachemperorhadalargenumberofsoldiers,whichgreatlyincreasedtheeconomicburdenoftheempire.Therefore,Diocletianfirstimplementedthenewtaxsystem,changedthecurrencysystem,adjustedprices,andpromulgatedthe"PriceOrder",buttheywerenotsuccessful.In297,Diocletian'sco-rulerGaleriusinvadedSassanidPersia,andin298,heoccupiedTessifon.In299,apeacetreatywasconcludedwithSassanidPersia,andRomegainedcontrolofnorthernMesopotamiaandArmenia.AfterDiocletianreignedfor20years,heabdicatedin305,whileMaximianalsoabdicated.

ConstantineI,whotookthethroneasAugustusinthewest,diedjustoverayearafterhereignedinBritain.HissonConstantineI(i.e.ConstantinetheGreat)Ascendedtothethronewiththesupportofthearmy.WhenConstantineIcametothethrone,heonlyoccupiedBritainandGaul.Italy,SpainandNorthAfricawerecontrolledbyMaximian’ssonMaxentius.In312,hedefeatedMaxentiusandunifiedthewest.

Intheeast,afterthedeathofAugustusGaleriusin311,Lisini,whoascendedthethrone,defeatedDeya,whooccupiedEgyptandpartoftheAsianterritories,andunifiedtheeast.In313,ConstantineIandLisiniissuedthe"MilanEdict"declaringChristianitylegal.In314,thetwoclashesbrokeout.LiXiniwasdefeatedandforcedtoabandontheEuropeanregionexceptThrace.In323,thetwofoughtagain,LiXinniwasdefeated,andConstantineIbecamethesoleruleroftheempire.

ZTEandtransformation

_{Hlavní část:ConstantineDynasty}

WhenConstantineIcametothethrone,hewasexhaustedallovertheempire.HeadoptedamethodsimilartoDiocletianandappointedhisthreesons,ConstantineIIandConstantine.TiusIIandConstantineIwerepartofCaesar’srulingempires:ConstantinetheGreatruledtheBalkansandtheBlackSea,ConstantineIIruledSpain,GaulandBritain,ConstantineTheusIIruledtheEastandEgypt,andConstantineIruledItalyandAfrica.ConstantineIreformedtheadministrativedivisionsanddividedthecountryintofourmajoradministrativeregions,oneundertheadministrativedistrict,andthenundertheprovince.Ontheeconomicside,Diocletian’spolicywascontinued,whichstipulatedoccupationalhereditary,fixedpeasantsontheland,andpromulgatedlawstoreaffirmthestatusofslaveowners.Intermsofmilitaryaffairs,theguardswereabolishedandreplacedbythePaladinCavalryGuards,andalargenumberofbarbarianswererecruitedintothearmy,whichcomprehensivelyimprovedthecombateffectivenessoftheRomanarmy.Heusedterrortoforceconscription,andthosewhorefusedtobecomeasoldiercouldbeputtodeath.Intermsofreligion,thefirstCouncilofNiceawasheldin325,whichdeterminedmanybasicChristiandoctrinesanddenouncedArianismasaheresy.AseriesofhisactionslaidthefoundationforthedominanceofChristianityinEuropeinthefuture.

Since324,ConstantineImadegreateffortstobuildthenewcapitalConstantinoplebesidetheBosphorus,knownasNewRome.Itwasinitiallycompletedin330years,anditsspecialgeographicalenvironmentandstrategicpositionwereanimportantreasonwhytheEasternRomanEmpiresurvivedthousandsofyears.In337,ConstantineIdiedandwasbaptizedbeforehisdeath.

AfterthedeathofConstantineI,theRomanEmpireimmediatelyfoughtforthethrone.ConstantineII,ConstantineI,andMagnentiuswerekilledoneafteranother.In353,ConstantiusIIbecamethesoleruleroftheempire.In361,Julian,theapostate,cousinofConstantiusII,rebelled.ConstantiusIIdiedonthewaytoconquerJulian,andJuliantookpower.UndertheinfluenceofNeo-Platonism,Julianimplementedananti-Christianpolicyafterheassumedthethroneandvigorouslysupportedpolytheism.HeaggressivelyattackedChristianity.Churcheswereburnedandlooted.Christiansweredrivenoutofthearmyandschools.HehimselfwroteabooktoattackChristianity.Ontheeconomicfront,Juliansucceededinstoppinginflation.Military,hedefeatedtheGermansandinvadedthePersianSassaniddynasty.In363,Julianwaskilledinbattle,andtheascendedJoviancancelledJulian'santi-Christianpolicy.

Odmítnout

_{Mainentry:ValentinianDynasty}

In364,Joviandied(probablyduetofoodpoisoning),DanubeofficerValentinianIwasmadeemperorbythearmy,andthenheappointedhisbrotherValenceasthecommunistpartyintheeasternpartoftheempire.Ruletheemperor.ValentinianIgarrisonedMilan,ValencegarrisonedConstantinople.In376,ValentinianIdiedandValentinianIIascendedthethrone.In378,ValencewaskilledinabattleagainsttheGothsinAdrianople,andtheempirewasgovernedbyGratianandTheodosiusI.WhenGratiandiedin383,TheodosiusImadepeacewiththeGoths,allowingthemtosettleintheterritory,jointhearmyandserveasofficials.In388,hedefeatedtheusurpersMagnusMaximusandFlavius​​Victorinthewest.In392,ValentinianIIdied(possiblyhangedhimself)inhispalaceinViena,southeastofGaul.

_{Hlavní název:TheodosiusDynasty}

In393,TheodosiusIdeclaredChristianitythestatereligion,andopposedallpaganismandheresy,closedpolytheistictemples,andbuiltanewChristianchurch.HebelievedthattheancientOlympicsviolatedChristiandoctrinesandwasanactivityofpagans,soheannouncedtheabolitionoftheancientOlympics.In394,TheodosiusIdefeatedEugenius,theusurperinthewest,andbecamethesoleruleroftheempire.ThiswasalsothelastreunificationoftheRomanEmpireaftermanydivisionsofeastandwest.Thisyear,thepopulationunderRomanrulemaybearound56million.In395,TheodosiusIdiedinMilan.Heonceagaindividedtheempireintotwoparts,theeastparttotheeldestsonArcadius,andthewestparttotheyoungestsonHornorius.

Rozpad a kolaps Západořímské říše

_{Hlavní část:Západní římská říšesub>}

Afterthe5thcentury,thewaveofEuropeanmigrationreachedapeak.Alaric,theleaderoftheVisigoths,constantlyinvadedtheRomanEmpireunderthestrongpressureoftheHuns,anomadicnationinNortheastAsia.Inthewinterof405,theAlliedforcesofAlaricandtheHunsbrokethroughtheimperialRhineline.Romehadnoeffectiveresistance,whichwasequivalenttogivingupmostofGaul.In407,theGeneralConstantineIIIstationedinBritainrebelled.TheWesternRomanEmperorHonoriustriedtogetAlarictoattackConstantineIII.Alaricdemanded4,000poundsofgoldasaprice.Uthagreed.Later,asHornoriusbrokehispromise,AlaricandtheHunsinvadedItaly,andHornoriusfledfromMilantoRavenna.AlaricwentsouthandsurroundedRome.

Atthistime,famineandplaguebrokeoutinRome.TheSenatehadtomakepeacewithAlaricandhandedover5,000poundsofgold,30,000poundsofsilver,andmanyvaluablesandtreasures.In409,thecoalitionofAlaricandtheHunssurroundedRomeforthesecondtimeanderectedapuppetemperor,andHornorius,whowashuddledinRavenna,retainedthethronewiththesupportoftheEasternRomanEmpire.In410,AlaricandtheHunssurroundedRomeforthethirdtime,andeventuallydefeatedit.Thecoalitionforceslootedthecityforthreedaysandreturnedwithgreatresults,whileRomesufferedadevastatingblow.Inthesameyear,alltheRomanlegionsstationedinBritainwithdrew,announcingtheendofRomanruleoverBritain.

Inthefollowingtenyears,theco-emperorConstantiusIIIofHonoriusbecamethemilitaryheadoftheempire,andtheempirewasstableforaperiodoftime.In418,theVisigothickingdomwasestablishedintheprovinceofAquitaineandthecapitalToulouse.ThiswasthefirstbarbariankingdomestablishedintheWesternRomanEmpire.In423,Honoriusdied,ValentinianIIIascendedthethrone,andhismotherGalaPlacidiawastheregent.

In439,theKingdomofVandal-AranwasestablishedinNorthAfrica,thecapitalofCarthage,andestablisheditsownnavy,constantlyattackingtheWesternRomanEmpirefromthesea.In451,theHungarianleaderAttilaledaninvasion,andwasrepelledbythefamousempire,Aetius,theVisigothicKingdomandotherGermans.Sincethen,Aetiushasrepeatedlyrepelledthebarbarianattacks.In454,PetroniusMaximuscolludedwithministerstofalselyaccuseAetiusofrebellion,andValentinianIIIbelievedittobetrueandmurderedAetiusinthepalace.Later,MaximuscolludedwithsoldierstomurderValentinianIIIandproclaimedhimselfemperor.In455,theleaderoftheVandals,Geselik,andtheHunstookadvantageofthechaostoinvadeRome.Maximuswaskilledandthecitywaslootedagain.

Sofar,theWesternRomanEmpirehasbeenunabletomaintain,onlylingering.Theeightlateremperorswereallpuppets,andtherealpowerwasinthehandsofbarbaricgenerals.Duringthe16yearsofLichmel’srule,Avitus,Mayorian,andLibiusSeveruswereabolished,andEmperorAntemius,whohadbeenerectedbytheEasternEmperor,waskilled,andAulibriuswasestablishedseparately.WhenGondobadwasinpower,hehelpedLiserius.In475,OrestmadehissonRomulusIIemperor.In476,thebarbariangeneralOdoacrebelledagainstOrest,deposedRomulusAugustus,declaredallegiancetotheEasternRomanEmperorZeno,andtransferredthepoweroftheWesternRomanEmpiretotheEasternRomanEmpire.Atthispoint,theWestThefalloftheRomanEmpire.ThedemiseoftheWesternRomanEmpiremarkedthecollapseofslaveryinWesternEurope,andthehistoryofWesternEuropehassinceopenedanewpage.

Germanickingdoms

AfterthedemiseoftheWesternRomanEmpire,theinvadingGermansestablishedsuccessivelyontheterritoryoftheWesternRomanEmpireTenkingdoms.In489,Theodoric,theleaderoftheOstrogoths,withthesupportoftheEasternRomanEmperorZeno,crossedtheAlpsandinvadedtheApennines.In493,TheodoricoccupiedRavenna,killedOdoac,establishedtheEasternGothicKingdom,andbecamethegovernoroftheEasternRomanEmpireinItaly.Infact,EasternRomedidnothavetheabilitytorestrainTheodoric.Throughaseriesofmarriages,TheodoricformedallianceswithotherGermanickingdoms.In534,theEasternRomanemperorJustinianIdestroyedtheVandalKingdom.In553,theEasternGothicKingdomwasdestroyed.In568,theLombardscrossedtheAlpsfromthenorth,invadedtheApenninesandestablishedtheLombardKingdom.In572,Paviawasestablishedasthecapital.EasternRomeonlyretainedRavennaandsomefragmentedterritoriesinsouth-centralItaly.In751,RavennawasoccupiedbytheLombards.In774,KingCharlestheGreatoftheFrankishKingdomdestroyedtheLombardKingdom.

EmpireSuccession

• Východní římská říše(Byzantská říše< /b>b>)

Po zániku Západořímské říše se Východořímská říše stala skutečným nástupcem Římské říše. V roce 1453, Konstantinopol, hlavní město Ehamri. .V roce 1461 Osmanská říše zničila Trabzonskou říši. V tomto okamžiku se Východořímská říše navždy stáhla z etapy dějin.

• CharlemagneEmpire

V roce 800 papež Lev III. korunoval Karla Velikého, krále karolínské dynastie Franského království, jako "císaře Římanů" v Římě, a uznal říši Karla Velikého, která je nástupcem římské říše 3 a v 8. sv. .

• Svatá římská říše

Rořímská říše a Římská říše ve skutečnosti nejsou přímý a právní vztah. V roce 962 byl král mezi východním Franským královstvím korunován císařem Římské říše, který jsme poznali papežem Johnem Romanem Ro HoII v Římě, az Pirea byl HolyRoman Emocí. poznal svůj stav.Do roku 1806 se francouzský císař nebo Napoleon nařídil Franz II Habsburské dynastie 6. srpna vzdal titulu císaře Svatého Říma a ponechal si pouze titul rakouského císaře.

• Ruská říše

V roce 1472 se Ivan III z Moskevského velkovévodství oženil s Východním Římem Sofií, dcerou Konstantina XI, poslední dobou říše, prohlásil, že zdědil východní římskou ortodoxii a zavedl státní náboženství v jihozápadním Římě.

In1547,GrandDukeIvanIVwascrownedbytheOrthodoxArchbishopMakkariandproclaimedtheemperor,becomingRussia'sfirsttsar.Theword"Czar"comesfromtheLatin"Caesar",implyingitspureblood.Atthesametime,inordertoalwaysremindtheworldthattheyarethelegalheirsoftheEasternRomanEmpire,theycallthemselvesthe"ThirdRome"andaddthedouble-headedeaglelogousedbyEasternRometothenationalemblem.

In1721,CzarPeterIofRussiaacceptedthetitleof"EmperorofAllRussia"andcalledhimself"Emperor".TsaristRussiawasrenamedtheRussianEmpireuntilthefalloftheRevolutioninFebruary1917.

Provincie

Následující tabulka uvádí provincii Římské říše před zhruba 120 lety.

Provincie jsou rozděleny do tří kategorií: Senátní provincie (spravuje Senát), Císařská provincie (spravuje císař) a Místní provincie (spravuje místní finanční úředník nebo guvernér).

Kultura

Jazyk

Latina je římská říšeOficiálním jazykem je také místní jazyk italského regionu. Během císařského období byla latina rozdělena do alespoň dvou kategorií, které se používají jako klasické Lalangy. tabulka a nezměnila se od císařského období do středověku. Populární latina má dialekty ve všech částech říše, s mnoha změnami, postupně se vyvíjejícími do románských jazyků .

AlthoughLatinistheofficiallanguageoftheempire,Greekisoneofthemainlanguages​​oftheempire,especiallyintheeasternprovincesoftheempire.EveninRome,Greekhasbecomethelanguageofeducationandtheupperclasslanguage.Greekisacommonlyusedlanguageinthefieldsofreligion(Christianity),science,andart.

Inthe4thcentury,Greekgraduallylostpowerinthewesternpartoftheempire,andLatinprevailed.Intheearly5thcentury,thepublicationofthestandardLatintranslationoftheBiblereflectedthissituation.TheWesternRomanEmpirealsograduallybegantorejectpeoplewhocouldspeakGreek.Thisresultedinaculturalsplitbetweentheeasternandwesternpartsoftheempire.GreekhasbeentheofficiallanguageoftheEasternRomanEmpiresince610.

Další jazyky​​jako je aramejština, koptština, arménština atd. se v říši mluví.

Přírodověda

PlinytheElder(23-79),autor 37svazků"Přírodopis",která pokrývá všechny aspekty tehdejší vědy,zahrnující astronomii,geografii,biologii,medicínu,zemědělství,třídy nerostů,atd. největší úspěch" NaturalHistory“ je, že zaznamenává více než 20 000 různých věcí a roztahuje různé dokumenty. Existuje více než 2 000 druhů, takže mnoho vzácných vědeckých záznamů té doby bylo předáno.

Zemědělství

TheSpanishColumella,authorof"AgriculturalTheory"in12volumes,talksaboutagriculturalandanimalhusbandrytechnologyandmanagementaswellassocialeconomy.ThisbookThebookhadagreatinfluenceonthemedievalmanor.

Lékařství

ThefamousdoctorCelsusintheperiodofEmperorTiberius(30-45yearsago),authorof"MedicalEncyclopedia"8volumesAmongthem,volumes7-8recordmanyoperations,andtheyaredescribedindetail.Galen(129-199),afamousdoctorintheperiodofEmperorMarcoAurelius,servedasanimperialphysicianformanyyearsandwrotequiteafew.Galenusedmonkeyanatomytoinferthestructureofthehumanbody,creatingaprecedentinanatomy.Galenalsoputforwardthetheoryof"threeauras",namely"vitalityaura","naturalaura"and"soulaura"toexplainthephysiologicalmechanismofthehumanbody.Galen'spharmacybookintroducedvariousmedicinalmaterials,about820species,includinganimals,plantsandminerals.Galen’stheorywasregardedasaclassicbytheWestintheMiddleAgesandbecamethemainreferencematerialforAvicennauntilHarveyproposedthetheoryofbloodcirculationinthe17thcentury.

Astronomie

TheEgyptianastronomerPtolemy(85-168),authorof13volumesof"Astronomy".ThebookcollectsthemasterpiecesofancientGreco-Romanastronomy.Thebookusesageometricsystemtodescribethemotionofcelestialbodies,andhasastarmapincluding1022stars,whichisextremelycompleteinancienttimes.Inaddition,thebookalsodiscussesthecalculationofthecalendar,thecalculationoftheeclipseofthesunandthemoon,theproductionanduseofastronomicalinstruments,andsoon.However,becausePtolemybelievedinthe"geocentrictheory",inordertomakethistheorystand,hedesignedanextremelycomplexcelestialgeometrysystemtosolvesomeproblemsthatthecalculationsofthegeocentrictheorydidnotmatchthereality,andtheresultsofthecalculationswereroughlysimilartotheactualobservations.BeforeCopernicusproposedthe"heliocentrictheory",Ptolemy'sdoctrinewasdominantinEurope.

Geografie

Strabo(64-23yearsago),authorof"Geography"in17volumes.The"knownworld"oftheRomansatthattimeisdescribedindetail,includingallpartsofEurope,WestAsiaandNorthAfrica,involvingthephysicalandhumangeographyofvariousplaces.Thebookalsodiscussestheimpactoftheenvironmentontheeconomiclifeofvariousplacesandthestudyofcities..Beforethegreatdiscoveryofgeography,thisbookwasthemostdetailedgeographyworkintheWest.

Historiografie

Historik oktávského období, LiWei (před 59-17 lety), autor "Historie Říma od založení města" 142 svazků, 36 svazků v současné době neexistuje, vypráví legendy o historii města Romulus v Romu, které jsme založili první generace.

Taxito (55-120 let),autor 12 svazků"Historie",především vyprávění historieFlaviandynastie(69-96).Tacitus je politicky nakloněnýrepublikánůmajeextrémněodpornývpřípaděněmeckýchaautoritativníchpravidel. vysokou historickou a literární hodnotu.

Suvitonius(approximately69-122yearslater),whoselifeinformationismainlyderivedfromPlinytheYounger’s"Letters",authorof"TheTwelveEmperorsofRome",withbiographyTheformdescribesthetwelvemonarchsatthebeginningoftheRomanEmpire,focusingonportrayinganecdotes,butthehistoriographylacksseriousness.

Appian (asi 95-asi 165), autor "Historie Říma". Vrchol začal v éře římských králů a dno skončilo v období císaře Trajana na začátku 2. století, pokrývající téměř 900 let historie.

Arian z Nicomedea, autorka „Alexandrova expedice“, je nejpodrobnější biografií Alexandra Velké existence.

AmianusMarcelinus(330-395),Antiochian,authorof"HistoryoftheLateRomanEmpire",narratingthebeginningoftheAntoniandynastyin1996to378ThehistoryofEmperorValence'sdefeatin1year.Thelast18volumesofthebook,namelyvolumes14-31,recordthehistoryoftheRomanEmpirefrom354to378.Thefirst13volumesarebasicallyexcerptsfromotherexistinghistoricalbooks;thenext18volumesaremainlythehistoryexperiencedbytheauthorhimself,sothecontentisdetailedandthewritingisvivid.Itisthemostimportantprimitivehistoricalbookaboutthelateclassicaleraandtheearlynationalmigration.Becausetheauthorisanexperiencedprofessionalmilitaryofficer,thedescriptionofthewarinthebookisparticularlyoutstanding,anditisrecognizedasthebestclassicalmilitaryhistoryworksinceCaesar.

Scienceof Law

Právník z druhého století Gayo, autor The Ladderof Law.

Inthethirdcentury,juristscompiledtheGregorianCodeandtheHermogonianCode,whichpreservedalargenumberofedictsanddecreesoftheemperor.Romanlawhasaprofoundimpactontheformulationoflawsinmodernsociety.Thelawsofcivillawcountries,suchasdebtlawandpropertylaw,allhavetheshadowofRomanlaw.

Architecture

Theamphitheater(alsoknownastheColosseumandColosseum),builtintheFlavianDynasty,hasthreearchesandcanholdtensofthousandsPeoplearetheplacewheregladiatorialperformancesareheld.Complexundergroundfacilitiesarebuiltforgladiatorialperformances,andwatercanevenbeusedfornavalbattleperformances.

TheArcdeTriomphealsooriginatedinRomeandwasbuiltfortheemperor’striumph.TherearethreetriumphalarchesintheancientcityofRome.OnewasbuiltbyTitusin71,onewasbuiltbySeverusin203,andtheotherwasbuiltbyConstantinetheGreatin315,withexquisitereliefs.

Literatura

Odkaz:Starověká římská literatura

Virgil,apoetintheOctavianperiod(70yearsago-19yearsago),wrote10earlyworks"Pastoral",mainlysingingpastorallife.Inthefirst29years,Virgilpublished4volumesof"IdyllicPoems"(alsotranslated"AgriculturalPoems"),whichmainlytalkedaboutagriculturalproductionandalsosangtheidyllicscenery.Thefirstvolumeisaboutgrowingcrops,thesecondvolumeisaboutgrowingfruittrees,thethirdvolumeisaboutraisinglivestock,andthefourthvolumeisaboutraisingbees.Inhislateryears,hewrotetheepic"Aeneas"(alsotranslatedas"Iniat")in12volumes,narratingthestoryoftheRomanmythologicalheroAeneaswhoescapedfromTroyandcametoItalyandbecameking.

Básník Horác, autor "Hymny", chválí Octaviana.

Ovid (před 43–14 lety),proslavený milostnými básněmi,se proslavil jako „LoveSongs“ se 49 básněmi ve 3 svazcích.Je to sbírka milostných básní.Je také autorem 21 „Dámských dopisů“, což je milostný dopis napsaný Ovidem, který je založen na „samotné mytologii v regionu“. Zásady „vyjasňování zvyků“. Ovidiův představitel jako báseň „Metamorfóza“ byla napsána přibližně během exilového období. Přepsala mnoho mýtů a legend .Zápletka je proměnlivá, představivost je zvláštní a je lepší než psychologický popis.

Filozofie

Neostoická filozofie převládala během císařského období. Hlavními filozofy jsou Seneca a císař Marco Aurelius, kteří hlásali fatalismus a askezi.

Seneca(from4to65yearsago),EmperorNero’steacher,believedthatthepurposeofphilosophywastoleadpeopletovirtueandadvocatedrestrainingdesireandpursuingmorality.However,Senecahimselfdidnotagreewithwhathesaidandmadeafortune.EmperorMarcoOlekepta"MeditationRecord",advocatingpatienceandrestraint.

Afterthecrisisofthethirdcentury,Neo-Platonismconcentratedonthemysticismofthetime.RepresentativesincludePlotinusandProklo.TocallGodtheoriginoftheworldisanabsolutelyinfiniteexistenceandcannotbeknown;andthehumanbodyistheoriginofsin,andhumansmustgetridofthefleshinordertocommunicatewithGodandobtainthetruth.Thisisthedoctrineof"theunityofmanandgod".

V křesťanství se objevila počáteční teologie zvaná "teologie kmotra" a reprezentativní postavou je Svatý Augustin. Svatý Augustin "OntheCity of God","Confessions"atd. ,teorii vykoupení,teorii nebes a brzy.

Diplomacie

Euroasijský kontinent během Římské říše (2 fotografie)