Rooman imperiumi

Empireestablishment

_{Maintry:Roman Republic}

TheendoftheRomanRepublicwasaturbulentera.In44BC,GaiusJuliusCaesarwasassassinated,andhiswillappointedOctavianashisheir.Octavian,whowas19yearsoldatthetimeandwasintheGreekApolloniaArmy,immediatelymarchedbacktoRomeafterlearningaboutit.RomeatthistimeisinthehandsofBrutusandCassius,therepublicanelderswhomurderedCaesar.OctavianmanagedtoformanalliancewithCaesar'scolleaguesMarkAnthonyandLepida,whichisknownasthelatterthreeallianceinhistory.ThethreebegantocleanuptheheresyoftheSenate,andmorethanahundredsenatorsandthousandsofknightswerekilled.AntonyandOctavianledanarmytopursueBrutusandCassiuswhohadfledtotheeast.In42BC,BrutusandCassiuscommittedsuicideinthebattleofPhilippi.OctavianreturnedtoRome,andAnthonywenttoEgypttoallywithCaesar’slover,CleopatraVII(Cleopatra),QueenofthePtolemaicdynastyofEgypt.Atthispoint,RomebelongedtoOctavianinthewestandAnthonyintheeast.

AnthonyfocusedontheParthianwarintheEast,andalwaysmaintainedacloserelationshipwiththeQueenofEgypt.OctavianmadealotofpeopleinRome,consolidatedpower,andatthesametimeslanderedAntony,claimingthathehadcolludedwithforeignforcesandrebelledagainstRome.Thecontradictionbetweenthetwosideshasbecomeincreasinglyfierce.Finally,inthefirst32years,OctaviandeclaredwaronAnthony.InSeptember31BC,thecoalitionforcesofAnthonyandtheQueenofEgyptfoughtOctavianatCapeActinginGreece,knownastheBattleofActing.Asaresult,AnthonywasdefeatedandfledbacktoEgyptwiththequeen.Inthefirst30years,whenOctavianinvadedEgypt,AntonyandtheQueencommittedsuicide.TheQueenandCaesar'sillegitimatesonCaesarLeonwasexecuted,andthePtolemaicdynastyperished.Atthispoint,EgyptbecameaprovinceofRome.

Ensimmäisten 27 vuoden aikana Octavian taitavasti käyttänyt poliittista taitoa julistaa ulkomaailmalle, että hänellä olisi useita valtaa ja palauttaisi julkisen;toisaalta, hän väitti olevansa pakotettu senaatinvaatimuksesta, ettäjulkisuuspäällikköjärjestelmä. ylikonsuli, elinikäinen konsuli, hengentakaaja, ylipappi jne., joka väittää olevansa "ensimmäinen kansalainen", ylipäällikkö (tai käännetty "GeneralTriumph", "Grand Marsalkka") ,ja ei saa senaatin myöntämiä "Augustuksen" (tarkoittaa "pyhä") ja "Isänmaan Isän" titteleitä. Tämä Octavianin upea esitys ilmoitti Rooman valtakunnan perustamisesta.

Siirtymä ja kehitys

_{Ylläpito:JuliaClaudiussub>}

DuringthereignofAugustus,hereformedthemilitary,reducedarmaments,andestablishedthefirststandingarmyandguardsintheempire;setupacabinettoassisttheemperorinhandlinggovernmentaffairs;The"NationalTaxationBureau"wasestablishedtocontrolthefinancialpower;theadministrativedivisionswerereorganized,andtheprovincesoftheSenateandtheemperorweredividedtoestablishtheemperor'shighestmilitarypower.AugustususeddiplomaticmeanstoestablishfriendlyrelationswithParthiaandArmenia.

Inthefirst19years,theempireconqueredallofSpain.Beginning16yearsago,AugustussenttroopstotheeasternAlpsandtheupperreachesoftheDanube,settinguptwoprovinces,RetiaandNorric,andthensenttroopstothemiddleandlowerreachesoftheDanube,settinguptwoprovinces,PannoniaandMessia.Inthefirst12to5years,thelandbetweentheRhineandtheElbewasgraduallyconquered,butthenewlyconqueredlandcontinuedtoriot.In9years,thegeneralVaruswasambushedinthebattleoftheTeutoburgForesttosuppresstheGermanuprisingandwasannihilated.AugustushadtoabandonthelandbetweentheRhineandtheElbe.Sincethen,theexpansionoftheRomanEmpiretoWestGermanyceased.Augustusdidnotcarryoutanymajorexpeditions,andthefollowingtwocenturieswerealongperiodofstability,calledthe"RomanPeace"period.

In14years,AugustusdiedandpasseddownhisadoptedsonTiberius.Inordertostrengthentheimperialpower,Tiberiusabolishedthelegislativepowerandvotingpowerofthecitizens'assembly,andconcentratedtheguardstoRometodefendtheemperor.Tiberiushadacoldandharshpersonality.Inthelaterperiodofhisreign,heactedarbitrarilyandrepeatedlysanctionedagainstorcriticizedtheemperor'swordsanddeeds.HedemandedthattheSenatecouldonlyexpressthesameopinionsashim,andtherelationshipbetweentheSenateandthefamilywasstrained.HeretiredtoCapriin26years,whereheruledRomefornearlytenyears.In37years,TiberiusdiedofCapri.

AfterthedeathofTiberius,theGuardsmadeCaligulatheemperor.ThisisthefirsttimeinRomanhistorythatanarmyhassupportedanemperor.Intheearlydaysofhisreign,Caligulawasgenerousandgenerous,andwasuniversallylovedbythepeople.Inthelaterperiod,hesuddenlysufferedfrommentalillness,ignoredstateaffairs,indulgedinentertainmentactivities,becamemoody,brutalandbloodthirsty,oftenexecutedSenatemembersandnoblesandconfiscatedtheirproperty.For40years,helecturedinRometopromotepersonaldictatorshipanddeifytheemperor.In41,Caligulawaskilledbytheguards.

AfterCaligula'sdeath,theguardssupportedhiselderlyuncleClaudiusascendedthethrone.DuringClaudius’sreign,hereformedgovernmentagenciesandestablishedabureaucraticsystem:thecentralgovernmenthasthreedepartments,namelytheSecretariat(inchargeofinternalaffairs,military,andforeignaffairs),theFinanceDepartment(inchargeoffinances),andtheJudicialDepartment(inchargeoflaws)..Improvedthestatusofknights,andgrantedRomancitizenshiptoresidentsoftheprovince.Asaresult,provincialnoblescanalsoserveasseniorofficialsorentertheSenate.Intermsofexternalexpansion,ithasconqueredsouthernBritainandMauritania.ClaudiusalsobuilttheportofOstiaatthemouthoftheTiberRiverandalarge-scalewaterpipeline.In54years,ClaudiusmaybepoisonedtodeathbyQueenAgrippinatheYounger.

AfterClaudiusdied,hisadoptedsonNerocametothethrone.DuringNero'sreign,heformulatedanumberofpoliciesthatbenefitedthecommonpeople.TheappointmentofthefamousplayerCorbrosuccessfullyresolvedthecrisisbetweenParthiaandArmenia.Butatthesametime,hewasalsoafamoustyrantinRomanhistory,cruelandtyrannical,andmurderedmothersandwives.Heispassionateaboutartandconsidershimselfa"greatartist".In64,afirebrokeoutinRome,andalmostallofthecitywasburneddown.Afterthefire,Nerobegantobuildanewpalacenamed"GoldenPalace".RumorsspreadinRome:Nerosetfiretobuildanewpalace.Inordertoeliminaterumors,NerousedChristiansasscapegoatstohuntandkillthem.In1966,theJewishWarbrokeoutinPalestine.Atthistime,NerowenttoGreeceforalongarttour.AsNerofellinpower,uprisingsagainstNerobrokeouteverywhere.InMarch1968,theGovernorofGaulWendéxandtheGovernorofSpainGarbarebelled.InMay,Wendikeswasdefeatedanddied.Atthistime,theSenatedeclaredNerotobeapublicenemyofthecountry,andNerocommittedsuicidewhilefleeing.

_{Maintry:Neljän keisarin vuosi}

AfterNero'sdeath,theSenaterecognizedGarbaasemperor.DuetoGarba'soldageandfrailty,unabletocontrolthesituation,leadinggeneralsaroundtheworldhaveastrongsenseofself-respect.InJanuary1969,Vitrius,governorofLowerGermania,proclaimedhimselfemperor,whileGarbawaskilledbyhissubordinatesOtto,whomadehimselfemperor.InMarch,VitriussenttroopstocompetewithOttoforthethrone,andOttocommittedsuicideindefeat.InJuly,WeiPaxiang,thegeneralwhowasquellingtheJewishrebellion,wasadoptedasemperorbymanytroops.InOctober,WeiPaxiangdefeatedVitriusandendedthebattleforthethrone.

Stabilointi ja konsolidointi

_{Ylläpito:FlavicDynasty}

InDecember69,WeiPaxiangbecameemperor.AfterWeiPaxiangbecameemperor,theempirewasfacingacrisis,andhefirstsuppressedtheuprisingsinvariousplaces.In70years,successfullysuppressedtheBadawirebellion.Inthesameyear,hissonTituscapturedJerusalem,massacredalargenumberofJews,andburneddowntheJewishtemple.TheJewishWarended.Inordertomakeupforthefinancialproblemscausedbythecivilwar,WeiPaxiangstrengthenedtaxationmanagementandincreasedprovincialtaxestorectifythemilitaryandinternalaffairs.Duringhisreign,hevigorouslystrengthenedthestatusoftheprovince.In1973,headdedthenoblesofvariousprovincestotheSenateandgrantedRomancitizenshiptomanynoblesoftheprovinces,allowingthenoblesoftheprovincestoparticipateinpoliticsextensively.

In1979,WeiPaxiangdiedandhissonTitusbecamethethrone.Titusismoderateinpolitics.Inthefirstyearofhistenure,MountVesuviuseruptedandburiedPompeii;afterthat,firesandplaguesbrokeoutinRome.Titusranaround,tiredofdisasterreliefwork.

In1981,TitusdiedandhisyoungerbrotherDomitiancametothethrone.Domitianvigorouslypromotedtheimperialpower,consolidatedtheheadofstatesystem,reformedthecabinet,andfurtherattractedtheknightlyclasstoparticipateinpolitics.Intermsofexternalexpansion,heachievedsuccessinSouthGermany,buildingtheGermanGreatWall,connectingtheRhineandtheupperreachesoftheDanubeintoonebodyandincorporatingitintotheempire'sterritory.However,helosttwiceinthewaragainstDaciaandfinallygavegiftstomakepeace.Domitianwasanautocraticdictatorship,whoregardedhimselfas"theLordandGod"anddespisedtheSenate.In1989,Domitianexecutedalargenumberofeldersanddignitariesunderthepretextofsupportingtherebellion,whichcausedpanicamongthepeople.In1996,Domitiandiedinacourtcoup.

Vauraus

_{Maintry:Antonian-dynastia}

AfterDomitian'sdeath,theSenateelectedNerva,anoldandheirlessformerconsulasemperor.Nervarespectedandtreatedthesenatorswell,andtheauthorityoftheSenatewasrestoredtosomeextent.Buthewasquiteunpopularwiththearmyandmilitarycommanders.Inordertowinthesupportofthearmy,NervaselectedtheoutstandingGermanicgovernorTrajanashisadoptedsoninthesecondyearofhisascension,successfullyquellingthearmy'sdissatisfaction.

In1998,NervadiedandTrajancametothethrone.Hewasthefirstemperorfromaprovincialnobleman.TrajancontinuedtoimplementNerva'spolicyoftreatingtheelderswell,vigorouslyconstructingpublicfacilities,andactivelyexpandingabroad.Duringhisreign,theterritoryoftheRomanEmpirereacheditsmaximum.From101onwards,TrajanledhisarmytoinvadeDacia,andin106itwascompletelyconquered,andDaciaprovincewasestablished.Trajanheldagrandtriumphalceremony,announcingthecelebrationof123days,andbuilttheancientRomanTrajanPillar.In105,TrajanoccupiednorthernArabiaandestablishedArabprovinces.In114,TrajanannexedArmeniaandestablishedtheArmenianProvince.Afterthat,TrajancontinuedtoadvanceeastwardanddefeatedtheParthianarmy.In116,heoccupiedthecapitalofParthianTaisifeng.Attheendoftheyear,Trajan'ssoldiersarrivedinthePersianGulf,andhewastheonlyRomancommanderwhohadreachedhere.In117,Trajan'sdiseasewasseverelywithdrawn,andtwoprovinces,AssyriaandMesopotamia,wereestablished.Beforehedied,Hadrianwasannouncedasanadoptedson.

AfterTrajan'sdeath,Hadrianascendedthethrone.Hadrianturnedoffensivetodefensive,givingupthelandthatTrajanhadconqueredintheeast.DuringHadrian'sreign,hetraveledmanytimes,andhisfootprintscoveredalmosttheentireempire.Duringthisperiod,hebuilttheeast-west"Hadrian'sWall"inthenorthernpartoftheBritishIslestodefendagainsttheintrusionofthebarbariansinScotland;unifiedrecruitmentstandards,strengthenedthequalityofthearmy,andestablishedatemporaryarmysystem.Hadrianfurtherenhancedtheimperialpower,takingthewilloftheemperorasthesupremelaw,andorderedjuriststocompilethe"PermanentEdict"asthelegalbasisoftheempire;vigorouslystrengthenthestatusofknightsandmakeitaspecificbureaucraticclass;continueandstrengthentheprovinceTheRomanizationofthecountrynarrowedthedistancebetweentheprovincialcitiesandRome.HealsorebuiltthefamousPantheoninRome.In131,HadrianbannedJewsfromcircumcision,SabbathandreadingJewishlaws.ThistriggeredaJewishuprising.TheRomanarmykilled580,000Jewsintwoyearstosuppresstheuprising.HadrianbannedJewsfromlivinginJerusalem,andalargenumberofJewshaveneversettledinJerusalem.Hadrianattachesgreatimportancetotheissueofheirs.Hechosea52-year-oldmemberofParliament,AntonniAsylum,ashisadoptedson,andaskedhimtoadopt18-year-oldmemberofParliamentMarcoAureliusand7-year-oldLuciusViru.Siistheadoptedson.

In138,Hadrianpassedaway,andhisadoptedson,AntoniAsylum,tookthethrone.DuringAntoniAsylum’sreign,heconvergedonthebordersandwasgenerallyfine;hehadagoodrelationshipwiththeSenate,hadagoodrelationshipwiththeSenate,andenjoyedapeacefulandprosperousperiodinRomeformorethan20years.

In161,AntoniusPiusdied,andthethronewasinheritedbytwoadoptedsons,VerusandMarcoAurelius.ThiswasthefirsttimeinRomanhistorythatthetwoemperorsruledtogether.MarcoAureliusisthefamous"philosopheremperor"andthemainexpounderofStoicphilosophy.Heistheauthorof"Meditations",whileVerusismoremediocre.

Whenthetwocametothethrone,thesituationontheborderoftheempirewassevere.ParthiainvadedArmeniain162.Afterfouryearsofhardwork,VerusrepelledParthiaandannexedMessofrom164to165.NorthofPotamia.In167,theGermansinvadedagain,andthetwoemperorshadtoleadtheirtroopstoconquer.Duetofinancialconstraints,thesilvercontentofthedinarsilvercoinwasfurtherreduced.In169,Velusdied,andtheempirewasrestoredtothesituationofanemperor.InordertorelievethepressureoftheGermansontheempire,MarcoAureliusallowedthemtosettleontheborderoftheempire,layingahiddendangerforfuturebarbarianinvasions.In175,thegeneralAvidiusCassiuslaunchedarebellionintheeasternpartoftheempire,anditwasquicklysuppressed.MarcoAureliusthenlaunchedawaragainsttheGermansinanattempttoannexBohemia.In180,justbeforesuccess,MarcoAureliusdiedofillness.

MarcoAureliuswasarelativelygreatemperor.Duringhisreign,hewasdiligentandlovingthepeople,activelyhandledgovernmentaffairs,andguardedthebordersoftheempire.However,duringthisperiod,theGermanicbarbarianincursionsintensified,theborderdefenselinehasbeeninastateoflosingground,andthedomesticeconomicsituationisdeterioratingdaybyday.Afterhisdeath,theRomanEmpiregraduallybegantodecline.

Fromprosperitytodecline

AfterthedeathofMarcoAureliu,hisson,KangMaode,succeededtothethrone.Intheearlydaysofhisreign,Commodoredidnotdaretoindulge,andrespectedtheeldersappointedbyMarcoOleliutoassisthimduringhislifetime.In182,hissisterLucillaandsomeelderstriedtoassassinatehim.Aftertheincident,heexecutedeveryoneinvolvedintheassassinationandmanyinnocentpeople.Fromthenon,KangMaodenolongertrustedtheelders,andhandedoverthepoliticalaffairstothefavoredministerandthecommanderoftheguards.Inthelatereign,hewascruelandsuspicious.Helikedcircus,wrestlingandothersportsactivities.HeclaimedtobethereincarnationofHercules.

Commod'srulecauseddissatisfactionamongthepeople,andmanypeopleconspiredtoassassinatehim,whichalsomadehimmoreweirdandtyrannical.Attheendof192,whenCommodoreannouncedthathewouldbedressedasagladiatorastheconsul,hismistressgavehimaglassofpoisonandwassubsequentlymurderedbyawrestlersentbythecommanderoftheGuards.

_{Maintry:Viiden keisarin vuosi}

KangAfterthedeathofProud,theGuardsadoptedthecitygovernorPettinaxasemperor.PettinaxactivelyquelledthenegativeimpactofCommodoreontheempire,butwhenhewantedtocleanupmilitarydiscipline,hewasimmediatelykilledbytheguards.

AfterPetinax'sdeath,theGuardsunexpectedlyannouncedthatthethronewouldbeauctioned,andthosewhobidmorecanbecometheemperor.Aftercompetitionamongmanypeople,Julianusboughtthethroneatapricesatisfiedbytheguards.ButJulianusdidnothaveafollower,andthearmydismissedhimevenmore.TheSyriangovernorNageltooktheleadinestablishinghimselfasemperor,andthenthegovernorofPannoniaandtheNorthAfricanSeverusrebelled.HeledthetroopsquicklytoRome.Themoraleoftheguardswaslowandtheywerequicklydefeated.TheSenateinsteaddeclaredSeverusemperor.TheGuardsexecutedJulianustorequestSeverus'forgiveness.AfterenteringRome,Severusexecutedalltheoriginalguardsonchargesoftreason,andformedalargernewguardwithhisownsoldiers.

Kriisi alkaa

_{Maintry:SeverusDynasty}

AfterSeverusbecameemperor,heimmediatelywenttowarwithNigel,whohadalreadybecomeemperor.In194,NigelwasdefeatedatIssus.In197,SeverusdefeatedtherebelliousBritishGovernorAlbanusinLyon,andthecivilwarfrom193ended.Severuswasasoldierandhewasaccustomedtoactingarbitrarily.HedidnotputtheSenateinhiseyesandremovedmanysenatorsfromimportantpositionsandreplacedthemwithcroniesandknights.Severus’rulewasbackedbythearmy.HeexpandedhisarmyaggressivelyandexpandedtheRomanarmytoanunprecedentedlevel.Mostofthemwereforeigners,andtheyusedhighratestowinoverthearmy,andhewasnotstingywithrewards.Severusachievedconsiderablemilitarysuccess.Inadditiontoendingthecivilwar,healsodefeatedParthiain197andonceagainannexednorthernMesopotamiaandsetitasaprovince.Severustransitionedtheheadofstatetoanabsolutemonarchy.Thejuristsatthetimesaidthat"heisnotsubjecttoalllawsandistherulerofanyone,andtheempireishisproperty."In208,SeverussenttroopstoBritaintoconquersouthernScotland.In211,hediedofillnessinYork.Attheendofhislife,hislastwordstothetwosonswere:"Mayyourbrothersgetalongwitheachothersothatthesoldierscangetrichanddon’tcareaboutothers."

AfterSeveru’sdeath,thetwosonsCaracallaandGettaAtthesametimeascendedthethrone.Caracallawasanothertyrant,andthefollowingyear,hekilledhisbrotherGetaandhiscomrades.Hiswife,father-in-lawandmanyfamouspeoplewerealsokilled.CaracallacontinuedtoimplementSeverus’policyofpreferentialtreatmenttothearmy.Inordertoincreaseincomeandexpandtaxsources,CaracallaissuedtheAntoninusedictin212,grantingallfreecitizensintheempiretherightofRomancitizenship.In217,CaracallawaskilledbytheguardswhenhesetouttoParthia.

AfterCaracallawaskilled,thecommanderoftheGuards,Maclinus,establishedhimselfastheemperor,andhissonDiadomenianwastheco-emperor.AfterMaclinussucceededtothethrone,heacceptedextremelyunfavorableterms,endedthewarwithParthia,andreducedmilitaryexpenditures,whichledtodissatisfactionwiththearmy.In218,Severus’wifeandsisterJuliaMisaincitedarebellion,andbothMaclinusandDiadomenianwerekilledinAsiaMinor.

Misathenmadehis13-year-oldgrandsonElagabalustheemperor.ElgabalusworshipedtheEasterngods,waslicentious,ignoredstatepolitics,andhadaverypoorrelationshipwiththeSenateandthearmy.In222,MisaacquiescedinkillinghimbytheGuardsandmadehis14-year-oldgrandsonAlexanderSeverusemperor.DuringthereignofAlexanderSeverus,relationswiththeSenateimproved.In231,AlexanderSeveruswenttotheeasttofightagainsttheemergingempireofSasanianPersia.Thesituationimprovedslightly,andherushedtothewesttoresisttheGermanicinvadingsouth.In235,thearmyrebelledandAlexanderSeveruswaskilled.

Kriisin huipentuma

_{Maintry:Kolmannen vuosisadan kriisi}

AfterthedeathofAlexanderSeverus,thearmyadoptedThracianMaximinusasemperor.Maximinuscamefromabarbarianandwasdespisedbyothers,sohetreatedtheSenateandthepeoplewithbrutalmethods.In238,theSenatesecretlyinstructedtheguardstokillhim.Inthesameyear,theSenateintroducedfouremperors,allofwhichwerekilled.GordianIII,whosubsequentlytookthethrone,wasonly13yearsoldandwasapuppetoftheGuards.In244,thearmysupportedPhiliptheArab.In247,Philiporganizedthecelebrationofthe1000thanniversaryofthefoundingofRome.In249,PhilipwaskilledbytherebelgeneralDecius.DeciusdiedinthewarwiththeGothsin251.DuringthereignofGallus,aprotractedplaguebrokeout.Gallusdiedatthehandsofsoldiersin253.TheascendedValerianandhissonGalienusledtwoarmies,oneresistingSassanidPersiaintheeast,andtheotherresistingtheGermansinthewest.Thiswasthefirsttodividetheempirefromeasttowest.In260,thegeneraloftheRhineregion,PersDumusestablishedhimselfasemperor,establishedtheGaulEmpire,andruledGaul,Britain,andmostofSpain.Inthesameyear,ValerianwascapturedwhilefightingPersia,buttheresultisunknown.In267,Palmyraintheeastbecameindependent,splittingpartoftheeasternprovinces.

Atthistime,thechaosoftheRomanEmpirereacheditsextreme.Theempirewasdividedintothree,andthecentralgovernmentwasalmostparalyzed.Theemperornotonlyhadtofaceexternalenemies,butalsosuppressedtherebelliousarmiesandrebelliouspeoplefromtimetotime.Inaddition,thearmycontinuestosupportthenewemperor,hopingformorerewards.Iftherewardisnotgenerous,theemperorwillbekilled.In268,GaryEnnusreformedthemilitary,dismissedothermilitarypositions,andestablishedanewreservearmystationedinMilan,withMilanasthemilitarycapitaloftheempire.ThereformedarmysuccessfullydefeatedtheEasternGothicoffensive.In269,theBhagadamovementbrokeoutintheGaulregionbyslavesandfarmers'uprisings.Theinsurgentsestablishedthemselvesasemperorsandmintedcoins,whichlasteduntil286.

Illyrialaiset keisarit

Galiennustaitoivat miehet alle vuoden armeijan uudistamisen jälkeen, ja ClaudiusII nousi valtaistuimelle. Hän voitti ensin Alamanin, sitten voimakkaan gootikarmian ja "Velihahmon" vanhan tittelin.

ClaudiusIIdiedoftheplaguein270,andAurelianascendedthethrone.AurelianstrucktheGothsagaininPannoniaandendedtheinvasionoftheGoths.ThenheledthearmytodefeatthePalmyraEmpire,regainedAsiaMinorandSyria,thenattackedthecityofPalmyra,capturedPalmyraQueenZinobia,andtookPalmyrain273.Thecitywasrazedtotheground.Inthesameyear,theGaulEmperorTetricusI,inordertosuppressthedomesticuprising,appealedtoOlelianforhelp,expressinghiswillingnesstogiveupindependence,andGaul,BritainandSpainwerereintegratedintotheempire.Aurelianreunitedtheempire,sohewascalledthe"WorldRestorer".Inordertostrengthenthedefense,Aurelianbuiltanewwall20kilometerslongand6metershighforRome,andabandonedDaciainordertousethenaturaldangersoftheDanubetodefend.

In275,AurelianwaskilledduringanexpeditiontoSasanianPersia,andtheSenateappointedClaudiusTacitusasemperor.ThiswasthelasttimethattheSenateelectedanemperor.Tacitusdiedayearafterhisreign,andthearmysupportedProbus.ProbussmashedtheGermanicinvasionofGaulinthreewaysandexpelledtheVandalsfromtheBalkans.

In282,ProbuswaskilledandMarcoAureliusCarusascendedthethrone.CarusonceagaindefeatedtheGermansinthenorthandattackedPersia,onceoccupyingTessifon.In283,Carusdiedviolently,andhissonCarinussucceeded.In284,thecommanderoftheGuards,Diocletian,rebelledanddefeatedKarinusnearBelgradeandbecametheruleroftheempire.

Vakaus ja uudistus

_{Maintry:Neljän keisarin yhteishallintojärjestelmä}

AfterDiocletianbecameemperor,hechangedtheheadofstatetoarealmonarchy.Themonarchworeacrownandsilkrobe,andhissubjectswererequiredtobowdowntothemonarch;themonarchwascalled"Lord"andwasworshipedasagod.DiocletianclaimedtobetheincarnationofJupiter.Theimperialpowerhasreacheditslimit.In286,DiocletianawardedGeneralMaximianthetitleof"Augustus"andappointedhimtheco-emperorofthewesternpartoftheempire.In287,thecommanderoftheBritishFleet,Karlusius,rebelledandclaimedtheemperor,occupyingthenorthwestofBritainandGaul.Itwassettledin296.In288,DiocletiansuccessfullyconsolidatedtheEuphratesRiverdefenselineandwasawardedthetitleof"PersianConqueror"bytheSenate.Inthesameyear,heledhisarmybackwestfromAntioch,Syria,andwenttotheDanubetoassistMaximianwhowasinGaul.In290,theGaulsuppressionbanditendedandonceagainwenttoSyriatosuppresstherebellionoftheArabnomads.In291,repelledthenativeswhoinvadedtheempireintheupperreachesoftheNile.In292,hereturnedtotheDanubeandrepelledthenorthernGermanicbarbarianSalmatianswhohadgoneacrossHenan.In293,Diocletianfirstbegantoimplementthe"fouremperorsco-governancesystem",asfollows:

Otsikko

Keisarin nimi

Pääoma

Piiri

Diocletianuksen päällikkö:kaksi Augustus(pääkeisari)imperiumin idässä ja länsipuolella hyväksyi keisarikunnan (varakeisari)ja Augustin hallitsi 20 vuotta myöhemmin. osat, mutta uskoa imperiumin puolustamisen neljälle keisarille.Diocletianuksen asema on edelleen korkein neljän joukossa .

Diocletianfirstreducedthesizeoftheprovinces,dividedabout100provinces,andestablishedadministrativeregionstocommandmorethanadozenprovinces,andthelocalgovernorsdidnotholdmilitaryposts.Diocletianreformedthemilitaryanddividedthearmyintofrontierguardsandfieldforces.Thefrontierguardswereusedtoresistforeignenemyinvasions,andthefieldtroopswereusedtosuppresspeople'suprisingsandmilitarymutinies,aswellasmobileoperationsagainstlarge-scaleforeignenemies.Healsoreducedthesizeofthecorpsandincreasedthenumberofcorpsfordispatch.SinceDiocletiandividedtheempire,eachemperorhadalargenumberofsoldiers,whichgreatlyincreasedtheeconomicburdenoftheempire.Therefore,Diocletianfirstimplementedthenewtaxsystem,changedthecurrencysystem,adjustedprices,andpromulgatedthe"PriceOrder",buttheywerenotsuccessful.In297,Diocletian'sco-rulerGaleriusinvadedSassanidPersia,andin298,heoccupiedTessifon.In299,apeacetreatywasconcludedwithSassanidPersia,andRomegainedcontrolofnorthernMesopotamiaandArmenia.AfterDiocletianreignedfor20years,heabdicatedin305,whileMaximianalsoabdicated.

ConstantineI,whotookthethroneasAugustusinthewest,diedjustoverayearafterhereignedinBritain.HissonConstantineI(i.e.ConstantinetheGreat)Ascendedtothethronewiththesupportofthearmy.WhenConstantineIcametothethrone,heonlyoccupiedBritainandGaul.Italy,SpainandNorthAfricawerecontrolledbyMaximian’ssonMaxentius.In312,hedefeatedMaxentiusandunifiedthewest.

Intheeast,afterthedeathofAugustusGaleriusin311,Lisini,whoascendedthethrone,defeatedDeya,whooccupiedEgyptandpartoftheAsianterritories,andunifiedtheeast.In313,ConstantineIandLisiniissuedthe"MilanEdict"declaringChristianitylegal.In314,thetwoclashesbrokeout.LiXiniwasdefeatedandforcedtoabandontheEuropeanregionexceptThrace.In323,thetwofoughtagain,LiXinniwasdefeated,andConstantineIbecamethesoleruleroftheempire.

ZTEandtransformation

_{Maintry:ConstantineDynastia}

WhenConstantineIcametothethrone,hewasexhaustedallovertheempire.HeadoptedamethodsimilartoDiocletianandappointedhisthreesons,ConstantineIIandConstantine.TiusIIandConstantineIwerepartofCaesar’srulingempires:ConstantinetheGreatruledtheBalkansandtheBlackSea,ConstantineIIruledSpain,GaulandBritain,ConstantineTheusIIruledtheEastandEgypt,andConstantineIruledItalyandAfrica.ConstantineIreformedtheadministrativedivisionsanddividedthecountryintofourmajoradministrativeregions,oneundertheadministrativedistrict,andthenundertheprovince.Ontheeconomicside,Diocletian’spolicywascontinued,whichstipulatedoccupationalhereditary,fixedpeasantsontheland,andpromulgatedlawstoreaffirmthestatusofslaveowners.Intermsofmilitaryaffairs,theguardswereabolishedandreplacedbythePaladinCavalryGuards,andalargenumberofbarbarianswererecruitedintothearmy,whichcomprehensivelyimprovedthecombateffectivenessoftheRomanarmy.Heusedterrortoforceconscription,andthosewhorefusedtobecomeasoldiercouldbeputtodeath.Intermsofreligion,thefirstCouncilofNiceawasheldin325,whichdeterminedmanybasicChristiandoctrinesanddenouncedArianismasaheresy.AseriesofhisactionslaidthefoundationforthedominanceofChristianityinEuropeinthefuture.

Since324,ConstantineImadegreateffortstobuildthenewcapitalConstantinoplebesidetheBosphorus,knownasNewRome.Itwasinitiallycompletedin330years,anditsspecialgeographicalenvironmentandstrategicpositionwereanimportantreasonwhytheEasternRomanEmpiresurvivedthousandsofyears.In337,ConstantineIdiedandwasbaptizedbeforehisdeath.

AfterthedeathofConstantineI,theRomanEmpireimmediatelyfoughtforthethrone.ConstantineII,ConstantineI,andMagnentiuswerekilledoneafteranother.In353,ConstantiusIIbecamethesoleruleroftheempire.In361,Julian,theapostate,cousinofConstantiusII,rebelled.ConstantiusIIdiedonthewaytoconquerJulian,andJuliantookpower.UndertheinfluenceofNeo-Platonism,Julianimplementedananti-Christianpolicyafterheassumedthethroneandvigorouslysupportedpolytheism.HeaggressivelyattackedChristianity.Churcheswereburnedandlooted.Christiansweredrivenoutofthearmyandschools.HehimselfwroteabooktoattackChristianity.Ontheeconomicfront,Juliansucceededinstoppinginflation.Military,hedefeatedtheGermansandinvadedthePersianSassaniddynasty.In363,Julianwaskilledinbattle,andtheascendedJoviancancelledJulian'santi-Christianpolicy.

Hylkää

_{Ylläpito:Valentinian-dynastia}

In364,Joviandied(probablyduetofoodpoisoning),DanubeofficerValentinianIwasmadeemperorbythearmy,andthenheappointedhisbrotherValenceasthecommunistpartyintheeasternpartoftheempire.Ruletheemperor.ValentinianIgarrisonedMilan,ValencegarrisonedConstantinople.In376,ValentinianIdiedandValentinianIIascendedthethrone.In378,ValencewaskilledinabattleagainsttheGothsinAdrianople,andtheempirewasgovernedbyGratianandTheodosiusI.WhenGratiandiedin383,TheodosiusImadepeacewiththeGoths,allowingthemtosettleintheterritory,jointhearmyandserveasofficials.In388,hedefeatedtheusurpersMagnusMaximusandFlavius​​Victorinthewest.In392,ValentinianIIdied(possiblyhangedhimself)inhispalaceinViena,southeastofGaul.

_{Ylläpito:Theodosius-dynastia}

In393,TheodosiusIdeclaredChristianitythestatereligion,andopposedallpaganismandheresy,closedpolytheistictemples,andbuiltanewChristianchurch.HebelievedthattheancientOlympicsviolatedChristiandoctrinesandwasanactivityofpagans,soheannouncedtheabolitionoftheancientOlympics.In394,TheodosiusIdefeatedEugenius,theusurperinthewest,andbecamethesoleruleroftheempire.ThiswasalsothelastreunificationoftheRomanEmpireaftermanydivisionsofeastandwest.Thisyear,thepopulationunderRomanrulemaybearound56million.In395,TheodosiusIdiedinMilan.Heonceagaindividedtheempireintotwoparts,theeastparttotheeldestsonArcadius,andthewestparttotheyoungestsonHornorius.

Länsi-Rooman valtakunnan hajoaminen ja romahtaminen

_{Maintry:Länsi-Rooman valtakunnan ala>}

Afterthe5thcentury,thewaveofEuropeanmigrationreachedapeak.Alaric,theleaderoftheVisigoths,constantlyinvadedtheRomanEmpireunderthestrongpressureoftheHuns,anomadicnationinNortheastAsia.Inthewinterof405,theAlliedforcesofAlaricandtheHunsbrokethroughtheimperialRhineline.Romehadnoeffectiveresistance,whichwasequivalenttogivingupmostofGaul.In407,theGeneralConstantineIIIstationedinBritainrebelled.TheWesternRomanEmperorHonoriustriedtogetAlarictoattackConstantineIII.Alaricdemanded4,000poundsofgoldasaprice.Uthagreed.Later,asHornoriusbrokehispromise,AlaricandtheHunsinvadedItaly,andHornoriusfledfromMilantoRavenna.AlaricwentsouthandsurroundedRome.

Atthistime,famineandplaguebrokeoutinRome.TheSenatehadtomakepeacewithAlaricandhandedover5,000poundsofgold,30,000poundsofsilver,andmanyvaluablesandtreasures.In409,thecoalitionofAlaricandtheHunssurroundedRomeforthesecondtimeanderectedapuppetemperor,andHornorius,whowashuddledinRavenna,retainedthethronewiththesupportoftheEasternRomanEmpire.In410,AlaricandtheHunssurroundedRomeforthethirdtime,andeventuallydefeatedit.Thecoalitionforceslootedthecityforthreedaysandreturnedwithgreatresults,whileRomesufferedadevastatingblow.Inthesameyear,alltheRomanlegionsstationedinBritainwithdrew,announcingtheendofRomanruleoverBritain.

Inthefollowingtenyears,theco-emperorConstantiusIIIofHonoriusbecamethemilitaryheadoftheempire,andtheempirewasstableforaperiodoftime.In418,theVisigothickingdomwasestablishedintheprovinceofAquitaineandthecapitalToulouse.ThiswasthefirstbarbariankingdomestablishedintheWesternRomanEmpire.In423,Honoriusdied,ValentinianIIIascendedthethrone,andhismotherGalaPlacidiawastheregent.

In439,theKingdomofVandal-AranwasestablishedinNorthAfrica,thecapitalofCarthage,andestablisheditsownnavy,constantlyattackingtheWesternRomanEmpirefromthesea.In451,theHungarianleaderAttilaledaninvasion,andwasrepelledbythefamousempire,Aetius,theVisigothicKingdomandotherGermans.Sincethen,Aetiushasrepeatedlyrepelledthebarbarianattacks.In454,PetroniusMaximuscolludedwithministerstofalselyaccuseAetiusofrebellion,andValentinianIIIbelievedittobetrueandmurderedAetiusinthepalace.Later,MaximuscolludedwithsoldierstomurderValentinianIIIandproclaimedhimselfemperor.In455,theleaderoftheVandals,Geselik,andtheHunstookadvantageofthechaostoinvadeRome.Maximuswaskilledandthecitywaslootedagain.

Sofar,theWesternRomanEmpirehasbeenunabletomaintain,onlylingering.Theeightlateremperorswereallpuppets,andtherealpowerwasinthehandsofbarbaricgenerals.Duringthe16yearsofLichmel’srule,Avitus,Mayorian,andLibiusSeveruswereabolished,andEmperorAntemius,whohadbeenerectedbytheEasternEmperor,waskilled,andAulibriuswasestablishedseparately.WhenGondobadwasinpower,hehelpedLiserius.In475,OrestmadehissonRomulusIIemperor.In476,thebarbariangeneralOdoacrebelledagainstOrest,deposedRomulusAugustus,declaredallegiancetotheEasternRomanEmperorZeno,andtransferredthepoweroftheWesternRomanEmpiretotheEasternRomanEmpire.Atthispoint,theWestThefalloftheRomanEmpire.ThedemiseoftheWesternRomanEmpiremarkedthecollapseofslaveryinWesternEurope,andthehistoryofWesternEuropehassinceopenedanewpage.

Germanickingdoms

AfterthedemiseoftheWesternRomanEmpire,theinvadingGermansestablishedsuccessivelyontheterritoryoftheWesternRomanEmpireTenkingdoms.In489,Theodoric,theleaderoftheOstrogoths,withthesupportoftheEasternRomanEmperorZeno,crossedtheAlpsandinvadedtheApennines.In493,TheodoricoccupiedRavenna,killedOdoac,establishedtheEasternGothicKingdom,andbecamethegovernoroftheEasternRomanEmpireinItaly.Infact,EasternRomedidnothavetheabilitytorestrainTheodoric.Throughaseriesofmarriages,TheodoricformedallianceswithotherGermanickingdoms.In534,theEasternRomanemperorJustinianIdestroyedtheVandalKingdom.In553,theEasternGothicKingdomwasdestroyed.In568,theLombardscrossedtheAlpsfromthenorth,invadedtheApenninesandestablishedtheLombardKingdom.In572,Paviawasestablishedasthecapital.EasternRomeonlyretainedRavennaandsomefragmentedterritoriesinsouth-centralItaly.In751,RavennawasoccupiedbytheLombards.In774,KingCharlestheGreatoftheFrankishKingdomdestroyedtheLombardKingdom.

EmpireSuccession

• Itä-Rooman valtakunta(Bysantin valtakunta< /b>b>)

Länsi-Rooman valtakunnan tuhon jälkeen Itä-Rooman valtakunnasta tuliRooman valtakunnan todellinen menestys.Vuonna 1453, Konstantinopoli,Itä-Rooman valtakunnan pääkaupungissa,4-Otomaan1Otomaan. valtakunta tuhosi Trabzonin imperiumin. Tässä vaiheessa Itä-Rooman valtakunta vetäytyi historian vaiheelta ikuisesti.

• Charlemagne Empire

Vuonna 800 paavi Leo III kruunattiin Kaarle Suureksi,FrankishKingdominCarolingiandynastian kuninkaaksi"Rooman keisariksi"ja tunnusti Kaarle SuurenImperiuminRoomanImperiumin osienmentäjäksi.Vuonna 843,

• HolyRoman Empire

PyhäRooman valtakunta jaRooman valtakunta eivät todellakaan ole suoraa ja oikeudellista suhdetta.Vuonna 962 Itä-Frankisan kuningaskunnan kuningas Otto kruunasiRooman valtakunnan keisarin. Vuoteen 1806 saakkaRanskankeisari tai Napoleon määräsiHabsburgin dynastianRanskan luopumaanPyhän Rooman keisarin 6. elokuuta tittelistäjasäilyttää vainItävallan keisarin arvon.Pyhä Rooman valtakunta hajosiItävallan valtakuntaan,Reinin liittoutumiseen.

• Venäjän valtakunta

Vuonna 1472 Moskovan suurherttuakunnan Ivan III meni naimisiin Itä-Rooman keisarikunnan veljentytär, Konstantinus XI:n veljentytär Sofia, joka julisti perineen Itä-Rooman ortodoksisuuden ja tuonut osavaltion uskontoon.

In1547,GrandDukeIvanIVwascrownedbytheOrthodoxArchbishopMakkariandproclaimedtheemperor,becomingRussia'sfirsttsar.Theword"Czar"comesfromtheLatin"Caesar",implyingitspureblood.Atthesametime,inordertoalwaysremindtheworldthattheyarethelegalheirsoftheEasternRomanEmpire,theycallthemselvesthe"ThirdRome"andaddthedouble-headedeaglelogousedbyEasternRometothenationalemblem.

In1721,CzarPeterIofRussiaacceptedthetitleof"EmperorofAllRussia"andcalledhimself"Emperor".TsaristRussiawasrenamedtheRussianEmpireuntilthefalloftheRevolutioninFebruary1917.

Provinssit

Seuraavassa taulukossa on lueteltuRooman valtakunnan maakunnat noin 120 vuotta sitten.

Provinssit on jaettu kolmeen luokkaan: Senaatin maakunta (johtaa senaatti), keisariprovinssi (hallitse keisari) ja paikallinen provinssi (hallitsee paikallinen rahoitusvirkailija tai kuvernööri).

Kulttuuri

Kieli

LatinalainenRooman valtakuntaVirallinen kieli on myös italialaisen alueen paikallinen kieli.Imperiumikauden aikana latina jaettiin vähintäänkahteen luokkaan. Taulukko ei ole muuttunut keisarillisesta kaudesta keskiaikaan. Suosittu latina on murteineen kaikissa valtakunnan osissa, monilla muutoksilla, vähitellen kehittymässä romaanisiksi kieliksi .

AlthoughLatinistheofficiallanguageoftheempire,Greekisoneofthemainlanguages​​oftheempire,especiallyintheeasternprovincesoftheempire.EveninRome,Greekhasbecomethelanguageofeducationandtheupperclasslanguage.Greekisacommonlyusedlanguageinthefieldsofreligion(Christianity),science,andart.

Inthe4thcentury,Greekgraduallylostpowerinthewesternpartoftheempire,andLatinprevailed.Intheearly5thcentury,thepublicationofthestandardLatintranslationoftheBiblereflectedthissituation.TheWesternRomanEmpirealsograduallybegantorejectpeoplewhocouldspeakGreek.Thisresultedinaculturalsplitbetweentheeasternandwesternpartsoftheempire.GreekhasbeentheofficiallanguageoftheEasternRomanEmpiresince610.

Imperiumissa puhutaan myös muita kieliä, kuten arameaa, koptia, armeniaa jne.

NaturalScience

PlinytheElder(23-79), kirjoittaja 37 nidettä "Natural Historia", joka kattaa kaikki silloiset tieteen osa-alueet, mukaan lukien tähtitiede, maantiede, biologia, lääketiede, maatalous, mineraalit, jne." .Suurin saavutus" NaturalHistory"on, että se tallentaa yli 20 000 eri asiaa ja otteita eri asiakirjoista. On olemassa yli 2 000 lajia, joten monia arvokkaita tieteellisiä tietueita on siirretty.

Maatalous

TheSpanishColumella,authorof"AgriculturalTheory"in12volumes,talksaboutagriculturalandanimalhusbandrytechnologyandmanagementaswellassocialeconomy.ThisbookThebookhadagreatinfluenceonthemedievalmanor.

Lääketiede

ThefamousdoctorCelsusintheperiodofEmperorTiberius(30-45yearsago),authorof"MedicalEncyclopedia"8volumesAmongthem,volumes7-8recordmanyoperations,andtheyaredescribedindetail.Galen(129-199),afamousdoctorintheperiodofEmperorMarcoAurelius,servedasanimperialphysicianformanyyearsandwrotequiteafew.Galenusedmonkeyanatomytoinferthestructureofthehumanbody,creatingaprecedentinanatomy.Galenalsoputforwardthetheoryof"threeauras",namely"vitalityaura","naturalaura"and"soulaura"toexplainthephysiologicalmechanismofthehumanbody.Galen'spharmacybookintroducedvariousmedicinalmaterials,about820species,includinganimals,plantsandminerals.Galen’stheorywasregardedasaclassicbytheWestintheMiddleAgesandbecamethemainreferencematerialforAvicennauntilHarveyproposedthetheoryofbloodcirculationinthe17thcentury.

Astronomia

TheEgyptianastronomerPtolemy(85-168),authorof13volumesof"Astronomy".ThebookcollectsthemasterpiecesofancientGreco-Romanastronomy.Thebookusesageometricsystemtodescribethemotionofcelestialbodies,andhasastarmapincluding1022stars,whichisextremelycompleteinancienttimes.Inaddition,thebookalsodiscussesthecalculationofthecalendar,thecalculationoftheeclipseofthesunandthemoon,theproductionanduseofastronomicalinstruments,andsoon.However,becausePtolemybelievedinthe"geocentrictheory",inordertomakethistheorystand,hedesignedanextremelycomplexcelestialgeometrysystemtosolvesomeproblemsthatthecalculationsofthegeocentrictheorydidnotmatchthereality,andtheresultsofthecalculationswereroughlysimilartotheactualobservations.BeforeCopernicusproposedthe"heliocentrictheory",Ptolemy'sdoctrinewasdominantinEurope.

Maantiede

Strabo(64-23yearsago),authorof"Geography"in17volumes.The"knownworld"oftheRomansatthattimeisdescribedindetail,includingallpartsofEurope,WestAsiaandNorthAfrica,involvingthephysicalandhumangeographyofvariousplaces.Thebookalsodiscussestheimpactoftheenvironmentontheeconomiclifeofvariousplacesandthestudyofcities..Beforethegreatdiscoveryofgeography,thisbookwasthemostdetailedgeographyworkintheWest.

Historiografia

Octavianperiodin historiankirjoittaja,LiWei(59-17 vuotta sitten),kirjoittaja"HistoriaofRomeSnetheFoundingoftheCity"142 nidettä, 36 nidettä tällä hetkellä ole olemassa,kertoalegendsperhehistorianhistorian

Taxito(55-120 vuotta),12 osan "Historia" kirjoittaja,lähinnäFlavian-dynastian historiasta(69-96).Tacitus on poliittisesti taipuvainen republikaaneihin,ja vastustaa äärimmäisenä keisarillisen vallanpitäjiä. kaikki, joilla on erittäin korkea historiallinen ja kirjallinen arvo.

Suvitonius(approximately69-122yearslater),whoselifeinformationismainlyderivedfromPlinytheYounger’s"Letters",authorof"TheTwelveEmperorsofRome",withbiographyTheformdescribesthetwelvemonarchsatthebeginningoftheRomanEmpire,focusingonportrayinganecdotes,butthehistoriographylacksseriousness.

Appian (noin 95-noin 165), "Historyof Rome" -kirjan kirjoittaja. Huippu alkoi roomalaisten aikakaudella ja alaosakeisariTrajanan kaudella200-luvun alussa, joka kattaa lähes 900 vuotta historiaa.

ArianofNicomedea, "Alexander's Expedition"-kirjoittaja, on Aleksanteri Suuren olemassaolon yksityiskohtaisin elämäkerta.

AmianusMarcelinus(330-395),Antiochian,authorof"HistoryoftheLateRomanEmpire",narratingthebeginningoftheAntoniandynastyin1996to378ThehistoryofEmperorValence'sdefeatin1year.Thelast18volumesofthebook,namelyvolumes14-31,recordthehistoryoftheRomanEmpirefrom354to378.Thefirst13volumesarebasicallyexcerptsfromotherexistinghistoricalbooks;thenext18volumesaremainlythehistoryexperiencedbytheauthorhimself,sothecontentisdetailedandthewritingisvivid.Itisthemostimportantprimitivehistoricalbookaboutthelateclassicaleraandtheearlynationalmigration.Becausetheauthorisanexperiencedprofessionalmilitaryofficer,thedescriptionofthewarinthebookisparticularlyoutstanding,anditisrecognizedasthebestclassicalmilitaryhistoryworksinceCaesar.

Lakitiede

Nämä toisen vuosisadan juristi Gayo, The Ladderof Lawn kirjoittaja.

Inthethirdcentury,juristscompiledtheGregorianCodeandtheHermogonianCode,whichpreservedalargenumberofedictsanddecreesoftheemperor.Romanlawhasaprofoundimpactontheformulationoflawsinmodernsociety.Thelawsofcivillawcountries,suchasdebtlawandpropertylaw,allhavetheshadowofRomanlaw.

Architecture

Theamphitheater(alsoknownastheColosseumandColosseum),builtintheFlavianDynasty,hasthreearchesandcanholdtensofthousandsPeoplearetheplacewheregladiatorialperformancesareheld.Complexundergroundfacilitiesarebuiltforgladiatorialperformances,andwatercanevenbeusedfornavalbattleperformances.

TheArcdeTriomphealsooriginatedinRomeandwasbuiltfortheemperor’striumph.TherearethreetriumphalarchesintheancientcityofRome.OnewasbuiltbyTitusin71,onewasbuiltbySeverusin203,andtheotherwasbuiltbyConstantinetheGreatin315,withexquisitereliefs.

Kirjallisuus

Viite:AncientRoman Literature

Virgil,apoetintheOctavianperiod(70yearsago-19yearsago),wrote10earlyworks"Pastoral",mainlysingingpastorallife.Inthefirst29years,Virgilpublished4volumesof"IdyllicPoems"(alsotranslated"AgriculturalPoems"),whichmainlytalkedaboutagriculturalproductionandalsosangtheidyllicscenery.Thefirstvolumeisaboutgrowingcrops,thesecondvolumeisaboutgrowingfruittrees,thethirdvolumeisaboutraisinglivestock,andthefourthvolumeisaboutraisingbees.Inhislateryears,hewrotetheepic"Aeneas"(alsotranslatedas"Iniat")in12volumes,narratingthestoryoftheRomanmythologicalheroAeneaswhoescapedfromTroyandcametoItalyandbecameking.

Hummin kirjoittaja runoilijaHorace laulaa ylistystä Octavianukselle.

Ovid(43-14 vuotta sitten),kuuluisa rakkausrunoista, tuli tunnetuksi"LoveSongs"-runollaan 49 runoa 3 osassa. Se on kokoelma rakkausrunoja. Hän on myös 21"Ladies Lettersin" kirjoittaja, joka on rakkauskirjekirjoituksestani. Octavianin "selvittävä tullipolitiikka". Ovidian edustaja runona "Metamorfoosi" kirjoitettiin suunnilleen maanpakokauden aikana. Se kirjoitti monia myyttejä ja legendoja .Keskustelu on vaihdettavissa, mielikuvitus on erikoinen, ja se on parempi kuin psykologinen kuvaus.

Filosofia

Neostoialainen filosofia vallitsi keisarikaudella. Tärkeimmät filosofit ovat Seneca ja keisari Marco Aurelius, jotka tavoittelivat kohtalokasta ja deskeettisyyttä.

Seneca(from4to65yearsago),EmperorNero’steacher,believedthatthepurposeofphilosophywastoleadpeopletovirtueandadvocatedrestrainingdesireandpursuingmorality.However,Senecahimselfdidnotagreewithwhathesaidandmadeafortune.EmperorMarcoOlekepta"MeditationRecord",advocatingpatienceandrestraint.

Afterthecrisisofthethirdcentury,Neo-Platonismconcentratedonthemysticismofthetime.RepresentativesincludePlotinusandProklo.TocallGodtheoriginoftheworldisanabsolutelyinfiniteexistenceandcannotbeknown;andthehumanbodyistheoriginofsin,andhumansmustgetridofthefleshinordertocommunicatewithGodandobtainthetruth.Thisisthedoctrineof"theunityofmanandgod".

Kristinuskossa ilmestyi alkuperäinen teologia, jota kutsutaan "kummisetäteologiaksi", ja edustava hahmo onSt.Augustine.SaintAugustiuusi kirjoitti "OntheCityof God","Confessions" jne., joka sisältää uusplatoninsuun,uskomyynnön,uskomyynnön,mukaanluottamusmielenosoitukseen,mukaanluottamuksellisena uskonnollisen doktriinapäivänä. ,redemptiontheory, Heavenly Theory,andsoon.

Diplomatia

Euraasian mannerRooman valtakunnan aikana (2 kuvaa)