spread

Basicconcepts

Basicinformation

Titles:Communication

Pinyin：Chuánbō

Meaning:TransmissionandDissemination

Meaningexplanation

1.[transmit]

2.Transmissionordissemination

Disseminationofknowledge

3.Contagion

Diseasestransmittedbylice

4.[disseminate]:Widespread

Librariansandpublishersresponsiblefordisseminationofbooks

5.[broadcast]:Tomakeitknowntothegeneralpublic

Disseminationofinformationaboutthelatestscientificinventions

Examplestoexplain

1.Widelyspread.

"NorthernHistory·TurkicBiography":"Itissuitabletospreadtheworld,andthesaltywillmakeknowledgeandnews."Onearticlehasalreadybeenwritten,andthosewhodogoodthingsoftentrytospreadchanting."

MingFengMenglong’s"EasternZhouKingdoms"Chapter46:"Thepalacepeopleheardthewordsandspreadthemabroad.Commercialofficialshesitatedanddidnotbelievethem.,ToinformtheTaiFuPanChong."

QingYuanMei's"SuiyuanPoetryTalk"Volume14:"Oneinkstoneandonechop,themasterdrawsabook,spreadstheartforest."

DingLing's"AnUnloadedBullet":"Thenewsspreadimmediately."

2,"spreading"inChinese

"spreading""isawordwithajointstructureinChinese,amongwhich"broadcast"mostlyrefersto"dissemination",and"broadcast"hasavarietyofdynamicmeaningssuchas"deliver,send,deliver,transport,give,andexpress".Thisindicatesthat"propagation"isadynamicbehavior.SoitisoftenusedasaverbinChinese.Suchas:spreadinginformation,spreadingrumors,spreadingdiseases,spreadingpollen...(Source:KangYongshengshi)

3.CommunicationinEnglish

"Communication""istranslatedfromEnglishcommunication.InEnglish,itisanoun.Theoriginalmeaningincludes"communication,notification,information,letter;convey,teach,spread,contagion;traffic,contact;common,shared"andothermeanings.

4.Thedefinitionof"communication"incommunicationscience

Accordingtoresearch,theUNESCOpublishedinLondononNovember16,1945Inthe(UNESCO)charter,itwasoncestatedthat“touseallmeansofmasscommunicationtoenhancemutualunderstandingamongnations.”Theterm“masscommunication”initwastranslatedas“masscommunication”(referringtonewspapers,radio,etc.)IntermsofmediasuchastelevisionandtheInternet,thesemediaarealsocollectivelyreferredtoas"massmedia",ormassmediaforshort).

Definitioncontent

Foreigndefinition

1Cooley(sociologicalperspective):Communicationreferstothemechanismbywhichtherelationshipbetweenpeopleisestablishedanddeveloped——Includingallspiritualsymbolsandtheirmeanstobetransmittedinspaceandpreservedintime.Itincludesexpressions,attitudes,actions,tones,language,articles,printedmatter,railways,telegraphs,telephones,andanyotherlatesteffectsofhumansconqueringspaceandtime.

2Peirce(semioticorsemanticperspective):Communicationistheprocessofpassingideasormeaning(spiritualcontent).

3Schram:Thereareatleastthreeelementsofcommunication-source,message,anddestination.

4God's"sharingtheory":Communicationistheprocessofturninguniqueintocommon.

5Gerberner’s"InteractionTheory":Communicationcanbedefinedassocialinteractionthroughinformation.

6BerelsonandSenna’s"symbolism":usingsymbols-words,pictures,numbers,diagrams,etc.toconveyinformation,thoughts,feelings,technology,etc.Theactorprocessofsuchtransmissionisusuallycalledtransmission.

7Hofland’s"Purpose,Influence,andResponseTheory":Communicationistheprocessbywhichoneperson(thecommunicator)transmitsstimuli(usuallyverbal)toinfluencethebehaviorofotherpeople(therecipient).

8Ayer:Communicationreferstothetransmissionofinformationinabroadsense.Itnotonlyincludescontactwithnews,butalsoexpressesfeelings,expectations,commands,wishesoranythingelse.

Domesticdefinition

1GuoQingguang:Thetransmissionofsocialinformationortheoperationofsocialinformationsystems.

2ShaoPeiren:Communicationisanactivityinwhichhumansexchangeinformationthroughsymbolsandmediainordertochangeaccordingly.

3HuZhengrong:Communicationistheprocessofinformationflow.Communicationconsistsoftwoelements-information(thematerialtobetransmitted)andflow.

4ZhangGuoliang:Disseminationistheact(orprocess)ofimpartinginformation.

Meansoftransmission

Explanationoftransmission

ThetransmissionistranslatedfromEnglishCommunication,fromLatinCommunication(community).TheChinesemeaningofthewordcanhavemorethanadozeninterpretations,suchas:communication,exchange,transportation,communication,communication,etc.Theso-calleddisseminationreferstothetransmissionofsocialinformationortheoperationofsocialinformationsystems.

Therearemanykindsofdefinitionsofcommunication.Accordingtosomestatistics,thereareasmanyas126kinds.Theyhavetheirownfocuses:

Emphasizethatcommunicationisthesharingofinformation;emphasizethatcommunicationisintentionalExertinfluence;emphasizethatcommunicationistheinteractiveprocessofinformationexchange;emphasizethatcommunicationistheoperationofsocialinformationsystems;emphasizethatcommunicationistheembodimentofsocialrelations.However,nomatterfromwhichanglethecommunicationisdefined,itsbasicmeaningisto"buildacommonconsciousnesswithothers."ThiscanalsobeseenfromEnglishwordssimilarto"communication":

Communicationcommunication,exchange,communication,dissemination;

Disseminationdissemination,diffusion,publicity;

Transmissiontransmission,transmission,broadcasting;

Spreadtransmission,transmission,publicity;

Propaganda(politics,politicalparties)publicityandtransmission.

Communication:Ithasabroadermeaning,suchascommunication,communication,communication,communication,communication,etc.Thebasicmeaningis"tobuildacommonawarenesswiththem."Incommunication,itisdefinedas:communicationisthebehaviorandactivityofhumaninformationexchangewithsocialandcommoncharacteristics.

Characteristicsofpubliccommunication:two-way,shared,rapidandextensive.

Constituentelements

Oneisthebasicelements:source,sink,information,medium,channel,feedback.

Thesecondisthehiddenelements:timeandspaceenvironment,psychologicalfactors,culturalbackgroundandinformationquality.

Plantpropagation

Dispersalpropagation

(1)referstothespreadofplantswithvariousstructuresontheirbodiestoexpandthelivingrangeofthenextgeneration.Therearemanywaysofpropagation,suchaswindpropagation(anemochory)ofwillowandmapletrees,waterpropagation(hydrochory)ofcoconuts,etc.,propagationofoakandothersbyfruitdropandsliding(clitochory),andcultivationofplantsrelyonhumanmedia.Thespread(brotochory),lilylily,woodsorrel,andascosporesofwhitesclerotiaarespreadbytheruptureofthepeelandascus(bo-lochory).However,thespreadinganddispersalofthegenusPseudomonasisdifferentfromthis.(TranslatedbyEYongchang)

(2)Thephenomenonthatacertainmodeofactionisspreadfromsomemembersoftheclustertoothermembers.Thisisduetolearning,andismostlyadaptivebehavior.Usually,youngindividualswithstrongplasticitystartnewbehaviorsandgraduallyspreadtoolderindividuals.

Spreadingmeaning

1.Thewaypeoplecareforeachotherandsharetheworld:thecompositionofmeaningandemotion.

2.Waystoverifyoneself:survivalcoordinates,roadsigns.

3.Thewayofsocialadjustment:observation,watch,decision-making,andtheguaranteeofsocialoperation.

Waysofcommunication

Accuratecommunication

Accuratecommunicationisbasedonafullunderstandingoftheaudience’sinformationandtargetingspecificgroupsofpeople’spreferences.Oneformofcommunication.

Accuratecommunicationoftenconsistsofacombinationofdirectmarketing,databasemarketingandothermethods.Thepremiseistomasteraccuratemarketinginformation,accuratetargetaudienceinformation,andeffectivemarketmethods.

Communications

Definition

Communicationsisthestudyofallhumancommunicationbehaviorsandthelawoftheoccurrenceanddevelopmentofthecommunicationprocess,aswellastherelationshipbetweencommunicationandpeopleandsociety..Inshort,communicationisadisciplinethatstudieshowhumansusesymbolstocommunicatesocialinformation.Communicationstudiesarealsocalledcommunicationstudiesandcommunicationstudies.Communicationistheproductofinterdisciplinaryresearchsincethe1930s.Communicationstudiesarecloselyrelatedtoothersocialsciencedisciplinesandareattheedgeofmultipledisciplines.Sincecommunicationisabasicsocialfunctionofpeople,anysciencethatstudiestherelationshipbetweenpeople,suchaspolitics,economics,anthropology,sociology,psychology,philosophy,linguistics,semantics,andneurologyAndsoon,areallrelatedtocommunication.Itusesthetheoreticalviewpointsandresearchmethodsofsociology,psychology,politicalscience,journalism,anthropologyandmanyotherdisciplinestostudytheessenceandconceptofcommunication;theinterconnectionandrestrictionofthebasicelementsinthecommunicationprocess;thegenerationandacquisitionofinformation,Processingandtransmission,efficiencyandfeedback,theinteractionbetweeninformationandobjects;theformationofvarioussymbolsystemsandtheirfunctionsincommunication;thefunctionsandstatusofvariouscommunicationmedia;communicationsystems,structures,andsocialsystemsinvariousfieldsRelationshipandsoon.

Inaddition,communicationsciencealsodrawsoninformationtheory,cybernetics,andsystemtheoryinnaturalsciences.Therefore,peoplecallitmarginalscience,whichmeansitisatthecrossroadsofmultipledisciplines.Thetheoriesofvarioussocialdisciplinesoftenbecomepartofthetheoryofcommunication.However,communicationhasitsowntheory,whichcannotbereplacedbyothersocialsciences.

Thefocusandfootholdofcommunicationstudiesare:howtoestablishacertainrelationshipbetweenpeoplethroughtheroleofcommunication.

Itsresearchscopemainlyincludes:interpersonalcommunicationandmasscommunication.Amongthem,masscommunicationisthemainfocus.

Thestudyofcommunicationisactuallythestudyofpeople:studyingtherelationshipbetweenpeopleandothergroups,organizations,andsociety;studyinghowpeopleareaffectedandhowtheyareaffectedbyeachother;studyinghowpeoplereportnewsandhowAcceptnewsandintellectualevidence,howtobetaughtfromothers,howtohavefunandentertainment.Firstunderstandhowpeoplebuildrelationshipswithpeople.

Relateddisciplines

Theconstructionofthecommunicationresearchsystemcanfirstfindthebasisandcoordinatesfromitsrelationshipwithotherrelateddisciplines.Becauseitsconstructionisinseparablefromthenurturingandpromotionofmanyrelateddisciplines.

1.CommunicationandSociology

IntheWest,peopleonceregardedcommunicationasabranchofsociology.Weknow:Sociologytakessocialorganization,socialbehavior,socialissues,etc.astheresearchobjects,andhasawiderange;whilecommunicationstudiesfocusesonthecommunicationprocess,communicationbehavior,communicationawarenessandcommunicationrelationsandotherphenomena,andtheobjectsaremoreconcentrated.Sociologywasbornbefore,andcommunicationwasbornafter.Initsformation,communicationstudieshaveabsorbedandborrowedsomeknowledgeandmethodsofsociology(suchassurveymethodsandstatisticalmethods),butitalsodrewnourishmentfrommanyotheremergingdisciplines.Nowadays,sociologyandotherdisciplinesarealsobeginningtousetheresultsofcommunicationtoenrichtheirresearchcontent.Thiskindofpartialoverlap,crossover,andmutualreferenceofresearchresultsiscompletelynormalandshouldbe,butafterall,theyareindependentdisciplineswiththeirowncharacteristics.

2.CommunicationandPsychology

Intheformationofcommunicationstudies,psychologyhashelped.Psychology,asthestudyofthelawsofmentalactivity,enrichesandenrichesthecontentofcommunicationresearchbydiggingouttheinternalmotivationandemotionalfactorsoftheoccurrenceofcommunicationphenomena,sothatthecommunicationsciencethatfocusesonmacroscopicresearchandprocessresearchcanstudyfromthemicroscopicandpsychologicalaspects.Theresearchhaslearnedfromeachother'sstrengthsandismoredynamic.Asasocialactivitywiththerichesthumanityandaffection,communicationalsoaddsnewresearchcontentanddiscoursespacetopsychologyresearch.Incommunicationactivities,thepsychologicalphenomenaandactivitiesofcommunicators,gatekeepers,intermediariesandaudiences,Isalsowhatpeoplewanttounderstand,whichalsomakespsychologyresearchmorerealisticandpractical.Thesimilaritybetweenthetwoliesinthespreadofpsychology.

3.CommunicationandAnthropology

Communicationsandanthropologyareboth"sciencesabouthumans",bothofwhichaimtodescribeandexplainthespecialhumanbeingsthatspantheentireearthAndnaturalandsocialphenomenathroughouthistory.However,thesubjectofanthropologyistostudyallaspectsofthehumanbodyandculture,andthesubjectofcommunicationistostudythebasicmediumofhumancommunicationbehaviorandculturaltransmissionfromgenerationtogeneration.Inthepast,peoplepaidtoomuchattentiontothedifferencesbetweenthetwodisciplines,andseldompaidattentiontotheinteractionandcomplementarityofthetwodisciplines.Communicationistheprivilegeandsymbolofmankind,thecarrierofcultureand"socialcement",andtheboosterofhumancivilizationandsocialprogress.Thetheoriesofthelinguisticschool,culturalschool,andcommunicationschoolinanthropologycangivecommunicationscholarsalotofenlightenment,whilethesemiotictheory,receptiontheory,andfunctionaltheoryincommunicationcanalsoopentheeyesofanthropologists.Inshort,wemustnotonlyunderstandthedifferencebetweencommunicationandanthropology,butalsotrytofindthepointofconvergencebetweenthetwo,sothatwecanscientificallyexplainandrevealthephenomenaandlawsofhumancommunication.

4.CommunicationandPropaganda

Thereisacertain"bloodrelationship"betweencommunicationandpropaganda.Becausealargepartofearlycommunicationresearchispropagandaresearch.However,thedifferencebetweenthetwoisalsoobviousandcannotbeconfused.Communicationstudiesallinformationdisseminationphenomenainhumansocietyasitsownresearchobjects,whichnaturallyalsoincludespropagandaphenomena;whilepropagandastudiesonlyregardpersuasiveandconceptualcommunicationphenomenaasitsownresearchobjects.Communicationcanrevealthenatureandlawsofgeneralinformationdisseminationfromahigherlevelandabroaderperspective,sothatitcanmoreaccuratelyguideallcommunicationactivities,includingpropagandaactivities;andpropagandacanonlydealwithitfromitsownperspective.Analyzethepropagandaphenomenonandrevealthelawsofpropagandaatthelevel,andthenguideone'sowncommunicationactivities,andcanonlydeepenandenrichthecontentofcommunicationfromcertainaspects,butcannotsimplybeusedtoguidegeneralcommunicationactivities.Thelatecomercommunicationstudieshasbecomethe"commander"ofvariousbranchesofcommunicationdisciplines,andpropagandatheoryisafteralljustabranchofcommunicationdisciplines.

5.Communicationandjournalism

Inthecourseoftheirevolution,communicationandjournalismhavehadaverycloseinteractiverelationship,andjournalismhasindeedcontributedtothebirthofcommunicationIthasplayedaroleininducinglabor,butthetwocannotbeequated.Itisgenerallybelievedthatjournalismisaproductofthenewspapernewsera,focusingonbusinessresearchor"technical"research;communicationisaproductoftheelectronicnewsera,focusingontheoreticalresearchor"learning"research.Journalismisbasedontheancient"Journalism"research,focusingonmicro-research,partialresearchandone-wayresearch;Communicationisbasedontheknowledgeofemergingdisciplines,focusingonmacro-research,overallresearchandtwo-wayresearch.Theresearchobjectofjournalismisthephenomenonofnewsinformation;theresearchobjectofcommunicationisthephenomenonofcommunicationactivities.Journalismisaspecificscientificresearch,whichcanprovidematerialsandenrichthecontentofcommunicationresearch;Communicationisageneralscientificresearch,whichhastheroleofstandardizingandguidingthecontentandmethodsofjournalismresearch.Somepeoplealsothinkthatjournalismisakindofprofessionalresearch,andcommunicationisakindofsocialresearch.Inshort,bothhavetheirowncharacteristics.

6.CommunicationandHistory

Asthehistoryofresearchandclarificationofthedevelopmentprocessofhumansociety,itcanhelpcommunicationstudiestostudythepastcommunicationactivitiesandexploretheoccurrenceofcommunicationphenomenaThesequenceandhistoricalfactorsrevealthehistoricalprocessandbasiclawsofmediatransformation,sothatcommunicationcan"discussfromhistory"andenablecommunicatorsto"learnfromhistory",gainhistoricalknowledge,historicalwisdomandhistoricalexperience,andimproveSpreadtheeffect.Asacommunicationstudyaimedatpursuingandenhancinghumancommunicationwisdom,itcanalsoallowhistorianstoseetheroleof"socialcement"and"interpersonallubrication"inthedevelopmentofhumansociety,aswellasinpolitics,religion,andTheleadingroleinhistoricalactivitiessuchaseducation,literature,andart,andtheninthe"historicalview"willfind:spreadingisnotonlyabuildingmaterialofhumannature,butalsoabuildingmaterialofhistory;allhumanhistoryrelatedtospiritualactivitiesorspiritualculture,Infact,itisthehistoryofcommunication.Historyisastaticintrovertedstudythatservesrealitybypayingattentiontoandanalyzingpasthistoricalfacts;Communicationisadynamicoutgoingresearchthatservesrealitybypayingattentiontoandanalyzingthephenomenonofcommunicationactivitiesthatareoccurring.

Inaddition,communicationstudiesoftenusesemiotics,semanticlanguage,informatics,receptionstudiesandotherrelateddisciplinesorresearchresultsonsimilartopicstocontinuouslyenrichandimproveitsownresearchcontentandresearchsystem.

Itcanbeseenthattherearemanydisciplines,especiallyemergingdisciplines,supportingit,enrichingit,andcontinuouslydeliveringfreshnourishmenttoit.Thiscreatesconditionsforcommunicationstudiestobeall-encompassingandintegrated,anditalsoprovidescommunicationstudieswithanimportantframeofreferencefordeterminingobjects,buildingsystems,andclarifyingcoordinates.

Founder

CommunicationswasbornintheUnitedStates.Americanscholarshaveexploredcommunicationtheoriesfromdifferentanglesandproposedawiderangeofcommunicationmodes,suchastext,graphics,andmathematicalformulas.Andothermodesofexpression.Communicationscientistsusedifferentmodelstoexplainthemechanismofinformationdissemination,thenatureofdissemination,promptthedisseminationprocessanddisseminationeffects,andpredictthesituationandstructureoffuturedissemination.Itisgenerallybelievedthattherearefivefoundersofcommunicationstudies:

1.HaroldDwightLasswell,Lasswell(1902-1980)isoneofthefoundersofmodernpoliticalscienceintheUnitedStates.Proposedthefamous5wmodeofcommunication.

2,KurtLewin,LuYin(1890—1947)GermanJews.Putforwardtheconceptof"gatekeeper"ininformationdissemination.

3,CarlHovland,Hovland(1921-1961)ProfessorofExperimentalPsychologyatYaleUniversity.Theexperimentalmethodsofpsychologyareintroducedintothefieldofcommunication,andtheconditionsandcomplexityoftheformationofcommunicationeffectsarerevealed.

4.PaulF.Lazarsfeld,Lazarsfeld(1901-1976)AustrianJews.RogerspointedoutthatLazarsfieldhasledcommunicationstudiestothedirectionofempiricalresearchmorethananyoneelse.

5.WilburSchramm,Schramm(1907-1988)American,establishedtheworld'sfirstinstituteofcommunicationstudies,andeditedthefirstbatchofGermancommunicationtextbooks.Severalnewresearchfieldshavebeenopenedup,suchastheinfluenceoftelevisiononchildren.Heisconsideredtobeamaster.

ThereasonwhyitoriginatedintheUnitedStatesisthatinthefirsthalfofthe20thcentury,Eurasiasufferedthescourgeoftwoworldwarsinsuccession,andtheUnitedStateshasbecomeasafehavenformanyscientistsduetoitsuniquegeographicaladvantages.Moreover,becausetheUnitedStatesitselfhasnotbeendamaged,theinventionandapplicationoftechnologyhasalwaysbeeninaleadingposition.Forexample:theopeningofPittsburghRadioTelevisionin1920,theestablishmentoftheNationalBroadcastingCorporationNBCin1926,andsoon.

Fromtheperspectiveofsocialconditions,Americanpoliticsandsociallifehaveatraditionofattachinggreatimportancetothemassmedia.Inthepoliticalmechanism,themassmediaisoneoftheforcesthatcheckandbalancewithlegislaturesandgovernmentagencies.NewspapershaveKnownastheSecondCongress.

Fromtheperspectiveofacademictraditions,Americanpragmatismphilosophyprevails,andacademicresearchplacesspecialemphasisonsolvingpracticalproblems.Alargeamountofpracticalinformationisusedbypeople,whichfacilitatespeople'slife,workandtheoperationofsociety.Buttherearealsoalargenumberofculturalwastessuchascommercialpromotion,politicalpropaganda,deception,pornography,andviolence.TheseproblemsorpotentialproblemshavebecomesubjectsthattheAmericanacademiccommunitymustfaceandstudy.

TheaboveconditionsalldeterminethatcommunicationstudiesoriginatedintheUnitedStates.

AftertheadventofcommunicationintheUnitedStates,itsoonspreadtoWesternEuropeandJapan.CommunicationstudiesintheUnitedKingdomhaveflourishedsincethe1960s.Themethodologycanbedividedintofourschools:thesociologyschoolledbyMcGuire;thesocialpsychologycardrepresentedbyHolloren;andtheChessmanandThepoliticaleconomycardrepresentedbyGarnham;thefunctionalschoolrepresentedbytheTelevisionResearchCenteroftheUniversityofLeeds.JapanesecommunicationstudiesbeganaftertheSecondWorldWar.Therearetwomajorcharacteristics:oneistofollowthetheoreticalsystemofforeigncountries,mainlytheUnitedStates,andtofocusonthedevelopmentofsocialparticipationtheorythatemphasizestherightofaudiencestodirectlyparticipateinthecommunicationprocess;thesecondispracticeTakeprecedenceovertheory.Sincethe1960s,theSovietUnionbegantoattachimportancetothestudyofcommunicationtheory.Sovietscholarsrespectivelyproposedtheirowncommunicationmodesbasedontheirownresearch.ThemorefamousonesaretheFilsovcommunicationmodeandtheAlekseyevcommunicationmode.

ItshouldbenotedthatWesterncommunicationscholarshaveobviouslimitationsintheirresearch.Forexample,theyinappropriatelybroadcasttransmissiontothefirstimportantpositionofhumanbeings,therebyexcludingthemainsymbolofhumanproductivity;theyattributetheoccurrenceanddevelopmentofcommunicationbehaviortohumaninstinctandscienceandtechnology,respectively.Itdoesnotlinkthemtothesocialproductionmethodsforinvestigation;whenstudyingthesocialcontrolofthecommunicationbusiness,theyoftenfailtothoroughlyrevealtheprofoundcontradictionswithinthesociety,andsoon.

ClassicalInterpretation

Thecompositionofasubjecthasthreeaspects:historicaltheoryandapplication.Communicationisacross-disciplinedevelopedfromtheUnitedStatesinthe1920sand1930s,anditsmainresearchobjectistheinformationdisseminationofhumansociety.Affectedbytheglobaltrendofinformationdissemination,communicationhasbecomeoneofthefastest-growingdisciplinesintheworld.FromalargenumberoforiginalEnglishworksofcommunicationstudiesinforeignlibraries,theauthorselected10classicworksrespectedbytheacademiccircle,withoutpresumption,comprehensivelyinterpretingtheresultsofpreviousstudies,andrecommendingthemtoChinesereaders.

Lippmanisoneofthemostinfluentialscholarsinthehistoryofcommunication,andenjoysahighreputationinpropagandaanalysisandpublicopinionresearch.Themostfamouspoliticalcolumnistintheworld,inhis1922book"PublicOpinion",pioneeredtheearlyideastodaycalledagendasetting.Thisbookisrecognizedasafoundationalworkinthefieldofcommunication.

Asaclassicworkoncommunication,thisbookprovidesapanoramicdescriptionofpublicopinionforthefirsttime,allowingreaderstoexperiencetheinternalandexternalconnectionsofpublicopinionindetail.Sinceitspublicationin1922,thisbookhasbeentranslatedintodozensoflanguages​​indecades,anditstillmaintainsanauthoritativepositioninthisfield.

ThesecretoftheenduringinfluenceofLippmann's"PublicOpinion"isthatthebookhaseffectivelysortedoutaseriesofunavoidableproblemsinpublicopinionresearch,suchaswhereandhowpublicopinioncomesfrom.Forming?Whatkindofresultscanitcause?Whoisthepublicandwhatkindofpublic?Whatdoespublicopinionmean?Isitonlyspreadamongthepublicorisitformedbythepublicthemselves?Isitorwhenwillitbecomeanindependentforce?

Inmodernsociety,publicopinionismainlyregardedasapoliticalphenomenon.Itcanbesaidthattherehaveonlybeentwosources,namely,anopenpublicopiniongenerationandcirculationsystemandaclosedpublicopinionproductionandindoctrinationsystem.Theyallproduceapublicopinionprocessofsimilarcomplexity,buttheresultsarenotthesame.Lippmann’s"PublicOpinion"hasmadeincisiveandin-depthdiscussionsonissuessuchasstereotypes,interest,theformationofpublicwill,andtheimageofdemocracy.Ithascompletedthefirstcomprehensivereviewofthespreadofpublicopinioninthehistoryofnews,andisagreatopportunityforfuturegenerations.Theresearchlaidthefoundation.

Lippmanhaslongnoticedthehugeimpactofmasscommunicationonsociety.Therefore,inworkssuchas"PublicOpinion"and"FreedomandNews",itisnotonlyaboutthenatureofnewsanditsselectionprocessAdeepanalysiswascarriedoutandtwoimportantconceptswereputforward,oneis"pseudoenvironment";theotheris"stereotype".Lipmanbelievesthatmodernsocietyisbecominglargerandmorecomplex.Duetothelimitedscope,energyandattentionofactualactivities,itisimpossibleforpeopletomaintainempiricalcontactwiththeentireexternalenvironmentandmanythingsrelatedtothem.Forthingsbeyondtheirownpersonalperception,peoplecanonlyunderstandcognitionthroughvarious"newssupplyagencies".Inthisway,humanbehaviorisnolongeraresponsetotheobjectiveenvironmentanditschanges,butaresponsetoacertain"mimeenvironment"promptedbynewsorganizations.

Theso-called"mimeenvironment"isnota"mirror"representationoftherealenvironment,butanenvironmentthatthemediaremindspeopleafterselectingandprocessingsymboliceventsorinformation,andrestructuringthem.However,becausethiskindofprocessing,selection,andstructuringactivitiesarecarriedoutinplacesthatareinvisibletoordinarypeople(insidethemedia),peopleusuallydonotrealizethis,andoftentreatthe"mimeenvironment"astheobjectiveenvironmentitself.

And"stereotype"referstopeople'sfixedandsimplisticideasandimpressionsofaparticularthing,whichisusuallyaccompaniedbyevaluationofthevalueofthethingandfeelingsoflikesanddislikes.Stereotypescanprovideasimplereferencestandardforpeopletounderstandthings,buttheyalsohindertheacceptanceofnewthings.Individualshavepersonalstereotypes,andasocietyalsohasstereotypesthatarewidelyacceptedandprevailingbyitsmembersofsociety,soitalsoplaysacontrollingroleinsociety.Lipmanparticularlyemphasizesthepowerofmasscommunication,andbelievesthatmasscommunicationisnotonlythemaincreatorofthe"mimeenvironment",butalsohasastronginfluenceinforming,maintainingandchangingthestereotypesofasociety.

Inaddition,theresearchonagendasettingalsobeganinLippman’s"PublicOpinion".Althoughthetermagendasettingisnotusedinthebook,heexpressedthebasicidea:mediacreationInadditiontothesymbolicimaginationsinourminds,theseimaginationsmaybecompletelydifferentfromthe"outer"worldweexperience.Hearguedthatmassmediaisthemainlinkbetweenaneventintherealworldandourimaginationofthisevent.Theagendasettingprocessdescribeshowpublicopinionplaysaroleinademocracy.40yearslater,Cohencontinuedtocontributetothedevelopmentofagendasetting.Hepointedoutthatthepresshasnotbeenverysuccessfulintellingpeople"howtothink",butitisextremelyeffectiveintellingpeople"whattothink".Ofcourse,itwasn'tuntil1972thatMcComsandShaw'sarticlewaspublishedinthe"QuarterlyJournalofPublicOpinion"thattheagendasettingwasnamed.Asoneofthefirstscholarswhodiscussedthemacroeffectsofmasscommunication,Lipmanmadeagreatcontributiontothegenerationanddevelopmentofthistheory.Hisclassicwork"PublicOpinion"hasalsoenduredforalongtimebecauseoftheincisivediscussionoftheabove-mentionedcommunicationissues.

Parker’s"ImmigrationNewspaperandItsControl"

TheDepartmentofSociologyattheUniversityofChicagoisthefirstDepartmentofSociologyintheUnitedStates,andtheChicagoSchoolisthemostprominentinthefieldofAmericansocialsciencesinthe20thcentury.Schoolofinfluence.AmongtheChicagoSchool,theonewhohasthegreatestinfluenceoncommunicationisRobertParker,whoisknownasthe"scholarwhopioneeredthestudyofmasscommunication."

Parkerhasnotmanybooksinhislife.Otherssaythatheisthekindofpersonwhowouldratherguideotherstowrite10booksthantakethetimetowriteabookbyhimself.Inadditiontohisdoctoraldissertation,"ImmigrationNewspaperandItsControl"publishedin1922ishisonlywork.Hehasmadeaseriesofinfluentialreportsandpublishedanintroductiontohisstudents'books.However,hismostinfluentialis"ImmigrationNewspaperandItsControl",whichisbyfarthemostimportanttextbookandreadingaboutearlyAmericancommunication.

The"ImmigrationNewspaperandItsControl"consistsoffourpartsandeighteenchapters.Thefirstpartis"TheLivingSoilofImmigrationNewspapers",dividedintofourchapterstointroducethereasonsfortheexistenceofforeignlanguagenewspapers,theEuropeanbackgroundofimmigrationnewspapers,theintegrationofimmigrationnewspapersandperiodicals,andtheenlightenmentbroughtbyimmigrationnewspapers;thesecondpartis"TheStatusofForeignLanguageNewspapers"Fivechaptersanalyzeadvertising,thedevelopmentoflocalnewspapers,urbannewspapers,urbannewspapersandwars,classstruggle;thethirdpart"Historyofimmigrationnewspapers",dividedintofivechapterstointroducethenewspapersfoundedbyearlyimmigrants,laterimmigrantnewspapers,newspapersandjournalsThereflectionofitsimmigrationstatus,thestruggleforthesurvivalofnewspapersandtheresultsofthesurvivalofthefittest;thefourthpart"presscontrol",dividedintofourchapterstodiscusscontrollevers,Hemelin'smanipulationandcontrol,adversarypropagandaandgovernmentintervention,alliancecontrol.

"ImmigrationNewspaperandItsControl"cameoutasaresultofethnicworriesaboutthepossibledisloyaltyofAmericanimmigrants.WillthousandsofGerman-AmericansbeloyaltotheUnitedStatesorwilltheybeloyaltoK.William?Willtheyspreadpropaganda,orwilltheyengageinsabotage?Parkerdirectedresearchonforeignlanguagenewspapersforimmigrants.HefoundthatYiddish,Polish,GermanandothernewspapersmainlyhelpedrecentimmigrantstounderstandhowtosurviveinNorthAmerica.Fewnewspapersencourageloyaltytotheoriginalmotherland.AmericanforeignlanguagenewspapersgraduallyformedtheirownrolebyhelpingtheirimmigrantreadersassimilatetoAmericanculture.

IntheUnitedStates,Parkerwasthefirsttostudytherelationshipbetweenminorities(ethnicities)andthemedia.Attheendofthe19thcenturyandthebeginningofthe20thcentury,alargenumberofnewimmigrantscametotheUnitedStates.HowtoassimilatethesenewimmigrantswasageneralconcernofmainstreamAmericansocietyatthattime.Atthesametime,Americansocietyalsoexcludesnewimmigrants.Parkerwentdeepintoethnicminoritycommunities.Afterinvestigatingdozensofforeign-languagenewspapersandperiodicals,hepublishedamonographonimmigrationnewspapersandperiodicals"ImmigrationNewspapersandTheirControl"in1922,opposingthesuppressionorcontrolofthesenewspapers.Heemphasizedthattheirrolehelpstomaintainethnicculture,andallowsreaderstocomeintocontactwithmetropolitanlifethroughthelanguageoftheirhometown,sothatimmigrantscansmoothlyintegrateintoAmericansociety.Parkerfocusedonempiricalanalysisandtookthesolutionofsocialrealityashismainresearchdirection.HeinvestigatedtheslumsofChicagoandtheseriouscrimeproblemsatthattime.Parker'sresearchcontentandmethodshavehadahugeimpactonscholarswhostudymediafromasociologicalperspectiveinEurope,America,Japanandothercountriesinthefuture.

In"ImmigrationNewspapersandItsControl",Parkermentionedatopicthatcommunicationhasbeenstudyinguntilnow:Howdoesmediacontentaffectpublicopinion?Howisthemassmediaaffectedbypublicopinion?Canmassmediabringaboutsocialchange?Howdoesinterpersonalcommunicationconnectwithmasscommunication?ItsdefinitionofcommunicationissimilartoShannon'slaterinformationtheory.

ThePeople’sChoicebyLazarsfield

PaulF.Lazarsfieldhasanimportantideologicalinfluenceontheformationofmoderncommunicationresearch,andisthepioneerofcommunicationeffectresearchBy.FromhisfirstresearchonthedisseminationeffectofradioaudiencesinViennain1930,tothe"BroadcastResearchProject"intheUnitedStatesin1937andtheUSpresidentialelectionin1940,hemadeanimpactthroughanalyticaluseofsamplesurveys.Causalinferencesaboutindividualbehavior."ThePeople'sChoice",whichwascompletedbyLazarsfeldandhisassistants,iscalled"oneofthemostcomplicatedinvestigationsinthehistoryofsocialscience",andisalsoaclassicworkoncommunicationeffects.

"People'sChoice"usesthe1940USpresidentialelectionasananalysiscasetoexplainhowvotersmakevotingchoicesundertheinfluenceofmassmediaandinterpersonalrelationships.

TheincentivethatpromptedLazarsfeldandotherstostudythebehaviorofthepublicinthepresidentialelectionwasWorldWarII.Thewarmachinedirectlypromotedmanyhumanitiesandsocialsciences,includingcommunicationstudies,intheUnitedStates.Development:Sociologistswereorderedtostudythemoraleofsoldiers,soastomakethementaloutlookoftheentirearmymoreconducivetocombat;socialpsychologistswereorderedtostudytheeffectivenessofpoliticalpropaganda,soastomakegovernmentordersmoreeasilyacceptedbythepublic;anddeepAnthropologistsfamiliarwiththeculturesofcountriesaroundtheworldareresponsibleforprovidingadvicetothegovernmenttoreducethefrictionthattheU.S.governmenthaswhendealingwithJapan,SouthKoreaandothercountries.Thesuccessofthesescholarsintheirrespectivefieldshasbroughtahighreputationandawiderrangeofresearchfieldstothehumanitiesandsocialsciences.Variousemergingresearchfieldsbasedonsocialneedshavealsopromptedthehumanitiesandsocialsciencestogetridofpurelyspeculativeresearchmethodsandreplacethemwithempiricalresearchmethods,becauseeveryresearchresultisexpectedtoexplainoractonpressingsocialissues.Thebasisforthegovernmenttoformulatepolicies.Both"People'sChoice"andPositivistCommunicationStudieswereborninthisacademicatmosphere.

Thecontributionof"People'sChoice"totheacademicthoughtofcommunicationismainlyreflectedintwoaspects.Oneisthelimitedeffecttheoryofmasscommunication,andtheotheristheformationoftheviewpointsof"two-levelcommunication"and"publicopinionleader".

Earlypropagandatheoristssupportedpowerfulmassmedia,butlatercommunicationscholarsdidnotfindsuchpowerfuleffectswhenstudyingmedia’sinfluenceonelectionbehavior,consumerdecision-making,andothertypesofbehaviorchanges.evidence.ThemainscholarwhobegantodoubtthepowerfulmassmediaeffectivenesstheorywasLazarsfield,anditwashisErieCountystudythatsparkedhissuspicion.

Lazarsfieldandothershopetoprovethatthemassmediahasadirectandpowerfuleffectinformingpeople’sintentionsabouthowtoactinthepresidentialelection.Heassumedthatvotingdecisionsinthepresidentialelectionwouldbemadeduringthecampaignandwouldbeaffectedbynewsandspecialreportsaboutelectionissuesandcandidatesinthemassmedia.Buttheresultsofthestudyrevealedtheopposite:ManyvotersinErieCountymadeuptheirmindsbeforetheelectioncampaignbegan.Only54ofthe600respondentshadswitchedfromonecandidatetoanother,andonlysomeoftheseconvertsdidsodirectlybecauseoftheinfluenceofthemassmedia.Themediacanonlyinformandpersuadesomekeyindividuals,thatis,thoseindividualswhowerelatercalled"leadersofpublicopinion,"theyinsteadcommunicatewiththeirfollowersthroughinterpersonalcommunication,thatis,useatwo-levelcommunicationandcirculationmodeltocombinethiseffect.Toexpand.

Inaddition,theintroductionofface-to-faceinterviews,groupexperiments,andquantitativeanalysismethodsintocommunicationresearchisalsoamajorcontributionofLazarsfieldtothecommunicationmethodologysystem.Reading"People'sChoice"cannotonlyhaveaclearunderstandingoftheearlydevelopmentofthedisciplineofcommunicationstudies,butalsolearnalotofeffectiveresearchmethods.

HaroldRaswell’s"TheStructureandFunctionofSocialCommunication"

ManyofusknowHaroldRaswell,mostlyfromhisfamousThe5Wpropagationmodestarted.In"TheStructureandFunctionofSocialCommunication",Laswellmadeamorecomprehensivediscussionontheprocess,structureandfunctionofsocialcommunication,andclearlyexplainedthe5Wcommunicationmodelandthethreefunctionsofmasscommunication.

In1948,Laswellpublishedanarticle"TheStructureandFunctionofSocialCommunication".Assoonasthepapercameout,itwaswidelypraisedandbecameoneoftheclassicachievementsofearlycommunicationstudies.Sofar,theacademiccirclesstillgiveitaveryhighevaluation,thinkingitisaprogrammaticmasterpiece,adeclarationofindependenceincommunicationstudies.IeventhinkthatallcommunicationstudiesseemtobeanannotationtoLaswell’sthesis,becauseitinvolvesmanybasiccontentsincommunication.Onthewhole,thesignificanceofthispaperismainlyreflectedintwoaspects:oneistoanalyzethevariouselementsofthecommunicationprocessfromtheinternalstructure;theotheristosummarizethesocialroleofcommunicationactivitiesfromtheexternalfunction.

Inthisarticle,Laswellclearlyputsforwardthecommunicationprocessanditsfivebasicelements,namely:who?What?Towhom?Whatchannel?Whateffectdiditachieve?ThisisthefamousLaswell5Wmodel,whichisconciseandclear,andisaclassicinthecommunicationprocessmodel.Manyscholarslatermadevariousrevisions,supplementsanddevelopments,butmostofthemretaineditsessentialcharacteristics.Thismodelalsolaysdownthefivebasiccontentsofcommunicationstudies:"controlanalysis","contentanalysis","mediaanalysis","audienceanalysis"and"effectanalysis".Thesefiveanalysescoverthemainareasofcommunicationresearch.Inaddition,ithasalsoledtotheemphasisondefiniteeffectsincommunicationstudies.

Anothermajorcontributionofthisarticleistoputforwardthethreebasicfunctionsofmasscommunicationandanalyzeitspossiblenegativefunctions.

Thesethreefunctionsare:monitoringtheenvironment,coordinatingsociety,andculturalinheritance.Thesethreefunctionsaremainlyfromtheperspectiveofpoliticalscience;in1959,CharlesWrightaddedthefunctionof"entertainment"fromtheperspectiveofsociology.Asaresult,theclassicfour-functiontheoryofmasscommunicationincommunicationstudieshasbeenformed.Tothisday,itisstillthebasicintroductoryknowledgethatcommunicationstudentsmustlearn.Asaninformationexchangeactivityinhumansociety,communicationhasmanysocialfunctions.AndLaswell’sexpositionprovidesabasisforcomprehensivelyrevealingthefunctionofmasscommunication.Sincethen,manyscholarshaveenrichedandexpandeditfromdifferentanglesandlevels.

Inadditiontotheabove-mentioned5Wcommunicationmodelandthethreefunctionsofmasscommunication,Laswellhasalsomademanyothercontributionsinthefieldofcommunication.Hepioneeredcontentanalysisandinventedqualitativeandquantitativemethodologiesformeasuringdisseminationofinformation;hisresearchonpoliticalpropagandaandwartimepropagandarepresentsanimportanttypeofearlycommunication,andtoday’spropagandaanalysishasbeenincludedInthegeneralsystemofcommunicationresearch;heintroducedFreud’spsychoanalytictheoryintoAmericansocialsciencesandcombineditwithpoliticalanalysis,thusapplyingtheFreudiantheorywithintheindividualonthesociallevel;healsohelpedFoundedPolicyScience,whichisaninterdisciplinarysubjectthatintegratessocialscienceknowledgeandpublicbehavior.Therefore,althoughLaswelldoesnotconsiderhimselfacommunicationscholar,thereisnodoubtthattherearemanyLaswell'sthoughtsandworksintoday'scommunicationresearchfield.Manyofhispioneeringworkshavelaidthebasicscopeandlevelofcommunicationstudies,andheiswell-deservedoneofthefoundersofcommunicationstudies.

Propagationoflight

Lighttravelsinastraightlineinthesamehomogeneousmedium.Smallholeimaging,solarandlunareclipses,andtheformationofshadowsallprovethisfact.

Leaveasidethewavenatureoflight,andbasedonthestraightlinepropagationoflight,thedisciplinethatstudiesthepropagationoflightinmediaandthelawofobjectimagingiscalledgeometricoptics.Ingeometricoptics,ageometriclinewithanarrowrepresentsthedirectionoflightpropagation,whichiscalledaray.Geometricalopticstreatsanobjectasacombinationofcountlessobjectpoints(inapproximatecases,theobjectcanalsobeusedtorepresenttheobject),thelightbeamemittedbytheobjectpointisregardedasacollectionofcountlessgeometriclightrays,andthedirectionofthelightraysrepresentsthetransmissiondirectionoflightenergy.Theseconceptsareobviouslycontrarytothewavenatureoflight,butifthesizeoftheresearchobjectwearediscussingismuchlargerthanthewavelengthoflight,anditsfinestructuredoesnothavetobeveryrigorouslyconsidered,theconclusiondrawnbygeometricopticsisstillAgoodapproximation.(Applyingwaveoptics,youcangetarigoroussolutiontotheproblemoflightpropagation),becausethegeometricopticsmethodissimpleandconvenient,itisoftenusedinsolvingopticaltechnologyproblems.

Therearethreelawoflightpropagationingeometricoptics:(1)Thelawoflightpropagationinastraightlineisasabove.Geodesyisalsobasedonthis.(2)ThelawofindependentpropagationoflightThetwobeamsoflightdonotinterferewitheachotherwhentheymeetduringthepropagationprocess,andcontinuetopropagateaccordingtotheirrespectivepaths.Whenthetwobeamsconvergeatthesamepoint,thelightenergyatthatpointissimplyadded.(3)Thelawoflightreflectionandrefraction.Whenlightencounterstheinterfacebetweentwodifferentmediaduringitspropagation,partofitreflectsandpartofitrefracts.Reflectedlightobeysthelawofreflection,andrefractedlightobeysthelawofrefraction.

Speed​​oflight

Thepropagationspeedoflight(electromagneticwaves)inavacuum.Theacceptedvaluein2013isC=299792458m/s(exactvalue)

Generallyroundedto3×10⁸m/s,itisoneofthemostimportantphysicalconstants.

Beforethe17thcentury,astronomersandphysicistsbelievedthatthespeedoflightwasinfinite,andthatthelightemittedbystarsintheuniversereachedtheearthinstantaneously.Galileofirstraiseddoubtsaboutthis.Hedidanexperimenttomeasurethespeedoflightbetweenthetopsofthetwomountainsin1607.Becausethespeedoflightwastoohighandtheexperimentaldevicewastoorough,hewasunsuccessful.In1676,theDanishastronomerRomerusedastronomicalobservationstomeasurethespeedoflightforthefirsttime.In1849,theFrenchscientistFizeausuccessfullymeasuredthespeedoflightonthegroundusingacleverdeviceinhislaboratory.In1973,EvansonoftheAmericanBureauofStandardsusedthelasermethodtousefrequencyandwavesumtodeterminethespeedoflighttobe(299792485+1.2)m/s.Confirmedbythe15thInternationalConferenceonMetrologyin1975,theabove-mentionedspeedoflightisusedasaninternationalrecommendedvalue.Atthe17thInternationalConferenceonMetrologyin1983,thenewdefinitionofthemeterwasadoptedasthelengthoflighttravelina"vacuum"withinatimeintervalof1/299792458seconds.

Inthisway,thespeedoflighthasbecomeadefinedvalue,anditsaccuracyiszero.Therewillbenoneedforprecisemeasurementinthefuture.Thelengthunitmetersandthetimeunitsecondsaredirectlyrelatedthroughthisdefinedvalue.

Oneofthebasicprinciplesofspecialrelativityistheprincipleofconstantspeedoflight.Thisisconsistentwiththedefinitionofthespeedoflightasafixedvalue.However,therearestillpeoplewhoarestilltestingwhetherthespeedoflightisconstantwithhigheraccuracy.