Основни понятия
Основна информация
Titles:Communication
Pinyin：Chuánbō
Meaning:TransmissionandDissemination
Обяснение на значението
1 [предаване]
2.Предаване или разпространение
Разпространение на знания
3.Заразяване
Болести, предавани от вълица
4 [разпространение]: Широко разпространено
Librariansandpublishersresponsiblefordisseminationofbooks
5 [излъчване]: За да стане известно на широката общественост
Disseminationofinformationaboutthelatestscientificinventions
Примери за обяснение
1. Широко разпространени.
"NorthernHistory·TurkicBiography":"Itissuitabletospreadtheworld,andthesaltywillmakeknowledgeandnews."Onearticlehasalreadybeenwritten,andthosewhodogoodthingsoftentrytospreadchanting."
MingFengMenglong’s"EasternZhouKingdoms"Chapter46:"Thepalacepeopleheardthewordsandspreadthemabroad.Commercialofficialshesitatedanddidnotbelievethem.,ToinformtheTaiFuPanChong."
"Suiyuan Poetry Talk" на QingYuanMei, том 14: "Oneinkstoneandonechop,themasterdrawsabook,spreadstheartforest."
"AnUnloadedBullet" на DingLing: "Новината се разпространява незабавно."
2, "разпространение" на китайски
"разпространение""е дума със съвместна структура на китайски, сред които "излъчване"предимно се отнася за "разпространение", а "излъчване"има различни динамични значения като "доставям,изпращам,доставям,транспортирам,давам,иекспресирам".Това показва,че "разпространение"е динамично поведение. разпространение на прашец...(Източник: KangYongshengshi)
3. Комуникация на английски език
"Комуникация""е преведено от английскиcommunication. На английски, itsanoun. Оригиналното значение включва "комуникация, известие, информация, писмо; предаване, обучение, разпространение, зараза; трафик, контакт; общ, споделен" и други значения.
4. Дефиницията на "комуникация" в науката за комуникациите
Accordingtoresearch,theUNESCOpublishedinLondononNovember16,1945Inthe(UNESCO)charter,itwasoncestatedthat“touseallmeansofmasscommunicationtoenhancemutualunderstandingamongnations.”Theterm“masscommunication”initwastranslatedas“masscommunication”(referringtonewspapers,radio,etc.)IntermsofmediasuchastelevisionandtheInternet,thesemediaarealsocollectivelyreferredtoas"massmedia",ormassmediaforshort).
Определение съдържание
Чуждо определение
1Cooley(sociologicalperspective):Communicationreferstothemechanismbywhichtherelationshipbetweenpeopleisestablishedanddeveloped——Includingallspiritualsymbolsandtheirmeanstobetransmittedinspaceandpreservedintime.Itincludesexpressions,attitudes,actions,tones,language,articles,printedmatter,railways,telegraphs,telephones,andanyotherlatesteffectsofhumansconqueringspaceandtime.
2Peirce(semioticorsemanticperspective):Communicationistheprocessofpassingideasormeaning(spiritualcontent).
3Schram: Има най-малко три елемента на комуникация - източник, съобщение и дестинация.
4God's"sharingtheory":Communicationistheprocessofturninguniqueintocommon.
5Gerberner’s"InteractionTheory":Communicationcanbedefinedassocialinteractionthroughinformation.
6 „Символизъм“ на Берелсон и Сена: използване на символи – думи, картини, числа, диаграми и т.н. за предаване на информация, мисли, чувства, технологии и т.н. Процесът на актьора на такова предаване обикновено се нарича предаване.
7 "Теория за целта, влиянието и реакцията" на Хофланд: Комуникацията е процесът, чрез който човек (комуникаторът) предава стимули (обикновено вербални), за да повлияе на поведението на други хора (там).
8Ayer:Communicationreferstothetransmissionofinformationinabroadsense.Itnotonlyincludescontactwithnews,butalsoexpressesfeelings,expectations,commands,wishesoranythingelse.
Домашно определение
1GuoQingguang:Thetransmissionofsocialinformationortheoperationofsocialinformationsystems.
2ShaoPeiren:Communicationisanactivityinwhichhumansexchangeinformationthroughsymbolsandmediainordertochangeaccordingly.
3HuZhengrong:Communicationistheprocessofinformationflow.Communicationconsistsoftwoelements-information(thematerialtobetransmitted)andflow.
4ZhangGuoliang: Разпространението е действието (или процесът) на предаване на информация.
Средства за предаване
Обяснение на предаването
ThetransmissionistranslatedfromEnglishCommunication,fromLatinCommunication(community).TheChinesemeaningofthewordcanhavemorethanadozeninterpretations,suchas:communication,exchange,transportation,communication,communication,etc.Theso-calleddisseminationreferstothetransmissionofsocialinformationortheoperationofsocialinformationsystems.
Therearemanykindsofdefinitionsofcommunication.Accordingtosomestatistics,thereareasmanyas126kinds.Theyhavetheirownfocuses:
Emphasizethatcommunicationisthesharingofinformation;emphasizethatcommunicationisintentionalExertinfluence;emphasizethatcommunicationistheinteractiveprocessofinformationexchange;emphasizethatcommunicationistheoperationofsocialinformationsystems;emphasizethatcommunicationistheembodimentofsocialrelations.However,nomatterfromwhichanglethecommunicationisdefined,itsbasicmeaningisto"buildacommonconsciousnesswithothers."ThiscanalsobeseenfromEnglishwordssimilarto"communication":
Комуникациякомуникация,обмен,комуникация,разпространение;
Разпространение разпространение, разпространение, публичност;
Трансмисияпредаване,предаване,излъчване;
Разпространено предаване, предаване, публичност;
Пропаганда (политика, политически партии) публичност и предаване.
Communication:Ithasabroadermeaning,suchascommunication,communication,communication,communication,communication,etc.Thebasicmeaningis"tobuildacommonawarenesswiththem."Incommunication,itisdefinedas:communicationisthebehaviorandactivityofhumaninformationexchangewithsocialandcommoncharacteristics.
Характеристики на публичната комуникация: двупосочна, споделена, бърза и обширна.
Съставни елементи
Единият е основните елементи: източник, приемник, информация, среда, канал, обратна връзка.
Thesecondisthehiddenelements:timeandspaceenvironment,psychologicalfactors,culturalbackgroundandinformationquality.
Размножаване на растения
Разпространение на разпространение
(1)referstothespreadofplantswithvariousstructuresontheirbodiestoexpandthelivingrangeofthenextgeneration.Therearemanywaysofpropagation,suchaswindpropagation(anemochory)ofwillowandmapletrees,waterpropagation(hydrochory)ofcoconuts,etc.,propagationofoakandothersbyfruitdropandsliding(clitochory),andcultivationofplantsrelyonhumanmedia.Thespread(brotochory),lilylily,woodsorrel,andascosporesofwhitesclerotiaarespreadbytheruptureofthepeelandascus(bo-lochory).However,thespreadinganddispersalofthegenusPseudomonasisdifferentfromthis.(TranslatedbyEYongchang)
(2)Thephenomenonthatacertainmodeofactionisspreadfromsomemembersoftheclustertoothermembers.Thisisduetolearning,andismostlyadaptivebehavior.Usually,youngindividualswithstrongplasticitystartnewbehaviorsandgraduallyspreadtoolderindividuals.
Разпространение на значението
1.Thewaypeoplecareforeachotherandsharetheworld:thecompositionofmeaningandemotion.
2. Начини за самопроверка: координати за оцеляване, пътни знаци.
3. Начинът на социално приспособяване: наблюдение, гледане, вземане на решения и гаранция за социална работа.
Начини на комуникация
Точна комуникация
Точна комуникацияisbasedonafullunderstandingoftheaudience’sinformationandtargetingspecificgroupsofpeople’spreferences.Oneformofcommunication.
Точна комуникацияoftenconsistsofacombinationofdirectmarketing,databasemarketingandothermethods.Thepremiseistomasteraccuratemarketinginformation,accuratetargetaudienceinformation,andeffectivemarketmethods.
Комуникации
Определение
Комуникацииisthestudyofallhumancommunicationbehaviorsandthelawoftheoccurrenceanddevelopmentofthecommunicationprocess,aswellastherelationshipbetweencommunicationandpeopleandsociety..Inshort,communicationisadisciplinethatstudieshowhumansusesymbolstocommunicatesocialinformation.Комуникацииtudiesarealsocalledcommunicationstudiesandcommunicationstudies.Communicationistheproductofinterdisciplinaryresearchsincethe1930s.Комуникацииtudiesarecloselyrelatedtoothersocialsciencedisciplinesandareattheedgeofmultipledisciplines.Sincecommunicationisabasicsocialfunctionofpeople,anysciencethatstudiestherelationshipbetweenpeople,suchaspolitics,economics,anthropology,sociology,psychology,philosophy,linguistics,semantics,andneurologyAndsoon,areallrelatedtocommunication.Itusesthetheoreticalviewpointsandresearchmethodsofsociology,psychology,politicalscience,journalism,anthropologyandmanyotherdisciplinestostudytheessenceandconceptofcommunication;theinterconnectionandrestrictionofthebasicelementsinthecommunicationprocess;thegenerationandacquisitionofinformation,Processingandtransmission,efficiencyandfeedback,theinteractionbetweeninformationandobjects;theformationofvarioussymbolsystemsandtheirfunctionsincommunication;thefunctionsandstatusofvariouscommunicationmedia;communicationsystems,structures,andsocialsystemsinvariousfieldsRelationshipandsoon.
Inaddition,communicationsciencealsodrawsoninformationtheory,cybernetics,andsystemtheoryinnaturalsciences.Therefore,peoplecallitmarginalscience,whichmeansitisatthecrossroadsofmultipledisciplines.Thetheoriesofvarioussocialdisciplinesoftenbecomepartofthetheoryofcommunication.However,communicationhasitsowntheory,whichcannotbereplacedbyothersocialsciences.
Thefocusandfootholdofcommunicationstudiesare:howtoestablishacertainrelationshipbetweenpeoplethroughtheroleofcommunication.
Itsresearchscopemainlyincludes:interpersonalcommunicationandmasscommunication.Amongthem,masscommunicationisthemainfocus.
Thestudyofcommunicationisactuallythestudyofpeople:studyingtherelationshipbetweenpeopleandothergroups,organizations,andsociety;studyinghowpeopleareaffectedandhowtheyareaffectedbyeachother;studyinghowpeoplereportnewsandhowAcceptnewsandintellectualevidence,howtobetaughtfromothers,howtohavefunandentertainment.Firstunderstandhowpeoplebuildrelationshipswithpeople.
Свързани дисциплини
Theconstructionofthecommunicationresearchsystemcanfirstfindthebasisandcoordinatesfromitsrelationshipwithotherrelateddisciplines.Becauseitsconstructionisinseparablefromthenurturingandpromotionofmanyrelateddisciplines.
1.Комуникация и социология
IntheWest,peopleonceregardedcommunicationasabranchofsociology.Weknow:Sociologytakessocialorganization,socialbehavior,socialissues,etc.astheresearchobjects,andhasawiderange;whilecommunicationstudiesfocusesonthecommunicationprocess,communicationbehavior,communicationawarenessandcommunicationrelationsandotherphenomena,andtheobjectsaremoreconcentrated.Sociologywasbornbefore,andcommunicationwasbornafter.Initsformation,communicationstudieshaveabsorbedandborrowedsomeknowledgeandmethodsofsociology(suchassurveymethodsandstatisticalmethods),butitalsodrewnourishmentfrommanyotheremergingdisciplines.Nowadays,sociologyandotherdisciplinesarealsobeginningtousetheresultsofcommunicationtoenrichtheirresearchcontent.Thiskindofpartialoverlap,crossover,andmutualreferenceofresearchresultsiscompletelynormalandshouldbe,butafterall,theyareindependentdisciplineswiththeirowncharacteristics.
2. Комуникация и психология
Intheformationofcommunicationstudies,psychologyhashelped.Psychology,asthestudyofthelawsofmentalactivity,enrichesandenrichesthecontentofcommunicationresearchbydiggingouttheinternalmotivationandemotionalfactorsoftheoccurrenceofcommunicationphenomena,sothatthecommunicationsciencethatfocusesonmacroscopicresearchandprocessresearchcanstudyfromthemicroscopicandpsychologicalaspects.Theresearchhaslearnedfromeachother'sstrengthsandismoredynamic.Asasocialactivitywiththerichesthumanityandaffection,communicationalsoaddsnewresearchcontentanddiscoursespacetopsychologyresearch.Incommunicationactivities,thepsychologicalphenomenaandactivitiesofcommunicators,gatekeepers,intermediariesandaudiences,Isalsowhatpeoplewanttounderstand,whichalsomakespsychologyresearchmorerealisticandpractical.Thesimilaritybetweenthetwoliesinthespreadofpsychology.
3. Комуникация и антропология
Комуникацииandanthropologyareboth"sciencesabouthumans",bothofwhichaimtodescribeandexplainthespecialhumanbeingsthatspantheentireearthAndnaturalandsocialphenomenathroughouthistory.However,thesubjectofanthropologyistostudyallaspectsofthehumanbodyandculture,andthesubjectofcommunicationistostudythebasicmediumofhumancommunicationbehaviorandculturaltransmissionfromgenerationtogeneration.Inthepast,peoplepaidtoomuchattentiontothedifferencesbetweenthetwodisciplines,andseldompaidattentiontotheinteractionandcomplementarityofthetwodisciplines.Communicationistheprivilegeandsymbolofmankind,thecarrierofcultureand"socialcement",andtheboosterofhumancivilizationandsocialprogress.Thetheoriesofthelinguisticschool,culturalschool,andcommunicationschoolinanthropologycangivecommunicationscholarsalotofenlightenment,whilethesemiotictheory,receptiontheory,andfunctionaltheoryincommunicationcanalsoopentheeyesofanthropologists.Inshort,wemustnotonlyunderstandthedifferencebetweencommunicationandanthropology,butalsotrytofindthepointofconvergencebetweenthetwo,sothatwecanscientificallyexplainandrevealthephenomenaandlawsofhumancommunication.
4. Комуникация и пропаганда
Thereisacertain"bloodrelationship"betweencommunicationandpropaganda.Becausealargepartofearlycommunicationresearchispropagandaresearch.However,thedifferencebetweenthetwoisalsoobviousandcannotbeconfused.Комуникацииtudiesallinformationdisseminationphenomenainhumansocietyasitsownresearchobjects,whichnaturallyalsoincludespropagandaphenomena;whilepropagandastudiesonlyregardpersuasiveandconceptualcommunicationphenomenaasitsownresearchobjects.Communicationcanrevealthenatureandlawsofgeneralinformationdisseminationfromahigherlevelandabroaderperspective,sothatitcanmoreaccuratelyguideallcommunicationactivities,includingpropagandaactivities;andpropagandacanonlydealwithitfromitsownperspective.Analyzethepropagandaphenomenonandrevealthelawsofpropagandaatthelevel,andthenguideone'sowncommunicationactivities,andcanonlydeepenandenrichthecontentofcommunicationfromcertainaspects,butcannotsimplybeusedtoguidegeneralcommunicationactivities.Thelatecomercommunicationstudieshasbecomethe"commander"ofvariousbranchesofcommunicationdisciplines,andpropagandatheoryisafteralljustabranchofcommunicationdisciplines.
5. Комуникация и журналистика
Inthecourseoftheirevolution,communicationandjournalismhavehadaverycloseinteractiverelationship,andjournalismhasindeedcontributedtothebirthofcommunicationIthasplayedaroleininducinglabor,butthetwocannotbeequated.Itisgenerallybelievedthatjournalismisaproductofthenewspapernewsera,focusingonbusinessresearchor"technical"research;communicationisaproductoftheelectronicnewsera,focusingontheoreticalresearchor"learning"research.Journalismisbasedontheancient"Journalism"research,focusingonmicro-research,partialresearchandone-wayresearch;Communicationisbasedontheknowledgeofemergingdisciplines,focusingonmacro-research,overallresearchandtwo-wayresearch.Theresearchobjectofjournalismisthephenomenonofnewsinformation;theresearchobjectofcommunicationisthephenomenonofcommunicationactivities.Journalismisaspecificscientificresearch,whichcanprovidematerialsandenrichthecontentofcommunicationresearch;Communicationisageneralscientificresearch,whichhastheroleofstandardizingandguidingthecontentandmethodsofjournalismresearch.Somepeoplealsothinkthatjournalismisakindofprofessionalresearch,andcommunicationisakindofsocialresearch.Inshort,bothhavetheirowncharacteristics.
6. Комуникация и история
Asthehistoryofresearchandclarificationofthedevelopmentprocessofhumansociety,itcanhelpcommunicationstudiestostudythepastcommunicationactivitiesandexploretheoccurrenceofcommunicationphenomenaThesequenceandhistoricalfactorsrevealthehistoricalprocessandbasiclawsofmediatransformation,sothatcommunicationcan"discussfromhistory"andenablecommunicatorsto"learnfromhistory",gainhistoricalknowledge,historicalwisdomandhistoricalexperience,andimproveSpreadtheeffect.Asacommunicationstudyaimedatpursuingandenhancinghumancommunicationwisdom,itcanalsoallowhistorianstoseetheroleof"socialcement"and"interpersonallubrication"inthedevelopmentofhumansociety,aswellasinpolitics,religion,andTheleadingroleinhistoricalactivitiessuchaseducation,literature,andart,andtheninthe"historicalview"willfind:spreadingisnotonlyabuildingmaterialofhumannature,butalsoabuildingmaterialofhistory;allhumanhistoryrelatedtospiritualactivitiesorspiritualculture,Infact,itisthehistoryofcommunication.Historyisastaticintrovertedstudythatservesrealitybypayingattentiontoandanalyzingpasthistoricalfacts;Communicationisadynamicoutgoingresearchthatservesrealitybypayingattentiontoandanalyzingthephenomenonofcommunicationactivitiesthatareoccurring.
Inaddition,communicationstudiesoftenusesemiotics,semanticlanguage,informatics,receptionstudiesandotherrelateddisciplinesorresearchresultsonsimilartopicstocontinuouslyenrichandimproveitsownresearchcontentandresearchsystem.
Itcanbeseenthattherearemanydisciplines,especiallyemergingdisciplines,supportingit,enrichingit,andcontinuouslydeliveringfreshnourishmenttoit.Thiscreatesconditionsforcommunicationstudiestobeall-encompassingandintegrated,anditalsoprovidescommunicationstudieswithanimportantframeofreferencefordeterminingobjects,buildingsystems,andclarifyingcoordinates.
Основател
КомуникацииwasbornintheUnitedStates.Americanscholarshaveexploredcommunicationtheoriesfromdifferentanglesandproposedawiderangeofcommunicationmodes,suchastext,graphics,andmathematicalformulas.Andothermodesofexpression.Комуникацииcientistsusedifferentmodelstoexplainthemechanismofinformationdissemination,thenatureofdissemination,promptthedisseminationprocessanddisseminationeffects,andpredictthesituationandstructureoffuturedissemination.Itisgenerallybelievedthattherearefivefoundersofcommunicationstudies:
1.HaroldDwightLasswell,Lasswell(1902-1980)isoneofthefoundersofmodernpoliticalscienceintheUnitedStates.Proposedthefamous5wmodeofcommunication.
2, Kurt Lewin, LuYin (1890—1947) Немски евреи. Изложи концепцията за "пазач на вратата" в разпространението на информация.
3,CarlHovland,Hovland(1921-1961)ProfessorofExperimentalPsychologyatYaleUniversity.Theexperimentalmethodsofpsychologyareintroducedintothefieldofcommunication,andtheconditionsandcomplexityoftheformationofcommunicationeffectsarerevealed.
4.PaulF.Lazarsfeld,Lazarsfeld(1901-1976)AustrianJews.RogerspointedoutthatLazarsfieldhasledcommunicationstudiestothedirectionofempiricalresearchmorethananyoneelse.
5.WilburSchramm,Schramm(1907-1988)American,establishedtheworld'sfirstinstituteofcommunicationstudies,andeditedthefirstbatchofGermancommunicationtextbooks.Severalnewresearchfieldshavebeenopenedup,suchastheinfluenceoftelevisiononchildren.Heisconsideredtobeamaster.
ThereasonwhyitoriginatedintheUnitedStatesisthatinthefirsthalfofthe20thcentury,Eurasiasufferedthescourgeoftwoworldwarsinsuccession,andtheUnitedStateshasbecomeasafehavenformanyscientistsduetoitsuniquegeographicaladvantages.Moreover,becausetheUnitedStatesitselfhasnotbeendamaged,theinventionandapplicationoftechnologyhasalwaysbeeninaleadingposition.Forexample:theopeningofPittsburghRadioTelevisionin1920,theestablishmentoftheNationalBroadcastingCorporationNBCin1926,andsoon.
Fromtheperspectiveofsocialconditions,Americanpoliticsandsociallifehaveatraditionofattachinggreatimportancetothemassmedia.Inthepoliticalmechanism,themassmediaisoneoftheforcesthatcheckandbalancewithlegislaturesandgovernmentagencies.NewspapershaveKnownastheSecondCongress.
Fromtheperspectiveofacademictraditions,Americanpragmatismphilosophyprevails,andacademicresearchplacesspecialemphasisonsolvingpracticalproblems.Alargeamountofpracticalinformationisusedbypeople,whichfacilitatespeople'slife,workandtheoperationofsociety.Buttherearealsoalargenumberofculturalwastessuchascommercialpromotion,politicalpropaganda,deception,pornography,andviolence.TheseproblemsorpotentialproblemshavebecomesubjectsthattheAmericanacademiccommunitymustfaceandstudy.
TheaboveconditionsalldeterminethatcommunicationstudiesoriginatedintheUnitedStates.
AftertheadventofcommunicationintheUnitedStates,itsoonspreadtoWesternEuropeandJapan.КомуникацииtudiesintheUnitedKingdomhaveflourishedsincethe1960s.Themethodologycanbedividedintofourschools:thesociologyschoolledbyMcGuire;thesocialpsychologycardrepresentedbyHolloren;andtheChessmanandThepoliticaleconomycardrepresentedbyGarnham;thefunctionalschoolrepresentedbytheTelevisionResearchCenteroftheUniversityofLeeds.JapanesecommunicationstudiesbeganaftertheSecondWorldWar.Therearetwomajorcharacteristics:oneistofollowthetheoreticalsystemofforeigncountries,mainlytheUnitedStates,andtofocusonthedevelopmentofsocialparticipationtheorythatemphasizestherightofaudiencestodirectlyparticipateinthecommunicationprocess;thesecondispracticeTakeprecedenceovertheory.Sincethe1960s,theSovietUnionbegantoattachimportancetothestudyofcommunicationtheory.Sovietscholarsrespectivelyproposedtheirowncommunicationmodesbasedontheirownresearch.ThemorefamousonesaretheFilsovcommunicationmodeandtheAlekseyevcommunicationmode.
ItshouldbenotedthatWesterncommunicationscholarshaveobviouslimitationsintheirresearch.Forexample,theyinappropriatelybroadcasttransmissiontothefirstimportantpositionofhumanbeings,therebyexcludingthemainsymbolofhumanproductivity;theyattributetheoccurrenceanddevelopmentofcommunicationbehaviortohumaninstinctandscienceandtechnology,respectively.Itdoesnotlinkthemtothesocialproductionmethodsforinvestigation;whenstudyingthesocialcontrolofthecommunicationbusiness,theyoftenfailtothoroughlyrevealtheprofoundcontradictionswithinthesociety,andsoon.
Класическа интерпретация
Thecompositionofasubjecthasthreeaspects:historicaltheoryandapplication.Communicationisacross-disciplinedevelopedfromtheUnitedStatesinthe1920sand1930s,anditsmainresearchobjectistheinformationdisseminationofhumansociety.Affectedbytheglobaltrendofinformationdissemination,communicationhasbecomeoneofthefastest-growingdisciplinesintheworld.FromalargenumberoforiginalEnglishworksofcommunicationstudiesinforeignlibraries,theauthorselected10classicworksrespectedbytheacademiccircle,withoutpresumption,comprehensivelyinterpretingtheresultsofpreviousstudies,andrecommendingthemtoChinesereaders.
Lippmanisoneofthemostinfluentialscholarsinthehistoryofcommunication,andenjoysahighreputationinpropagandaanalysisandpublicopinionresearch.Themostfamouspoliticalcolumnistintheworld,inhis1922book"PublicOpinion",pioneeredtheearlyideastodaycalledagendasetting.Thisbookisrecognizedasafoundationalworkinthefieldofcommunication.
Asaclassicworkoncommunication,thisbookprovidesapanoramicdescriptionofpublicopinionforthefirsttime,allowingreaderstoexperiencetheinternalandexternalconnectionsofpublicopinionindetail.Sinceitspublicationin1922,thisbookhasbeentranslatedintodozensoflanguagesindecades,anditstillmaintainsanauthoritativepositioninthisfield.
ThesecretoftheenduringinfluenceofLippmann's"PublicOpinion"isthatthebookhaseffectivelysortedoutaseriesofunavoidableproblemsinpublicopinionresearch,suchaswhereandhowpublicopinioncomesfrom.Forming?Whatkindofresultscanitcause?Whoisthepublicandwhatkindofpublic?Whatdoespublicopinionmean?Isitonlyspreadamongthepublicorisitformedbythepublicthemselves?Isitorwhenwillitbecomeanindependentforce?
Inmodernsociety,publicopinionismainlyregardedasapoliticalphenomenon.Itcanbesaidthattherehaveonlybeentwosources,namely,anopenpublicopiniongenerationandcirculationsystemandaclosedpublicopinionproductionandindoctrinationsystem.Theyallproduceapublicopinionprocessofsimilarcomplexity,buttheresultsarenotthesame.Lippmann’s"PublicOpinion"hasmadeincisiveandin-depthdiscussionsonissuessuchasstereotypes,interest,theformationofpublicwill,andtheimageofdemocracy.Ithascompletedthefirstcomprehensivereviewofthespreadofpublicopinioninthehistoryofnews,andisagreatopportunityforfuturegenerations.Theresearchlaidthefoundation.
Lippmanhaslongnoticedthehugeimpactofmasscommunicationonsociety.Therefore,inworkssuchas"PublicOpinion"and"FreedomandNews",itisnotonlyaboutthenatureofnewsanditsselectionprocessAdeepanalysiswascarriedoutandtwoimportantconceptswereputforward,oneis"pseudoenvironment";theotheris"stereotype".Lipmanbelievesthatmodernsocietyisbecominglargerandmorecomplex.Duetothelimitedscope,energyandattentionofactualactivities,itisimpossibleforpeopletomaintainempiricalcontactwiththeentireexternalenvironmentandmanythingsrelatedtothem.Forthingsbeyondtheirownpersonalperception,peoplecanonlyunderstandcognitionthroughvarious"newssupplyagencies".Inthisway,humanbehaviorisnolongeraresponsetotheobjectiveenvironmentanditschanges,butaresponsetoacertain"mimeenvironment"promptedbynewsorganizations.
Theso-called"mimeenvironment"isnota"mirror"representationoftherealenvironment,butanenvironmentthatthemediaremindspeopleafterselectingandprocessingsymboliceventsorinformation,andrestructuringthem.However,becausethiskindofprocessing,selection,andstructuringactivitiesarecarriedoutinplacesthatareinvisibletoordinarypeople(insidethemedia),peopleusuallydonotrealizethis,andoftentreatthe"mimeenvironment"astheobjectiveenvironmentitself.
And"stereotype"referstopeople'sfixedandsimplisticideasandimpressionsofaparticularthing,whichisusuallyaccompaniedbyevaluationofthevalueofthethingandfeelingsoflikesanddislikes.Stereotypescanprovideasimplereferencestandardforpeopletounderstandthings,buttheyalsohindertheacceptanceofnewthings.Individualshavepersonalstereotypes,andasocietyalsohasstereotypesthatarewidelyacceptedandprevailingbyitsmembersofsociety,soitalsoplaysacontrollingroleinsociety.Lipmanparticularlyemphasizesthepowerofmasscommunication,andbelievesthatmasscommunicationisnotonlythemaincreatorofthe"mimeenvironment",butalsohasastronginfluenceinforming,maintainingandchangingthestereotypesofasociety.
Inaddition,theresearchonagendasettingalsobeganinLippman’s"PublicOpinion".Althoughthetermagendasettingisnotusedinthebook,heexpressedthebasicidea:mediacreationInadditiontothesymbolicimaginationsinourminds,theseimaginationsmaybecompletelydifferentfromthe"outer"worldweexperience.Hearguedthatmassmediaisthemainlinkbetweenaneventintherealworldandourimaginationofthisevent.Theagendasettingprocessdescribeshowpublicopinionplaysaroleinademocracy.40yearslater,Cohencontinuedtocontributetothedevelopmentofagendasetting.Hepointedoutthatthepresshasnotbeenverysuccessfulintellingpeople"howtothink",butitisextremelyeffectiveintellingpeople"whattothink".Ofcourse,itwasn'tuntil1972thatMcComsandShaw'sarticlewaspublishedinthe"QuarterlyJournalofPublicOpinion"thattheagendasettingwasnamed.Asoneofthefirstscholarswhodiscussedthemacroeffectsofmasscommunication,Lipmanmadeagreatcontributiontothegenerationanddevelopmentofthistheory.Hisclassicwork"PublicOpinion"hasalsoenduredforalongtimebecauseoftheincisivediscussionoftheabove-mentionedcommunicationissues.
"ImmigrationNewspaperandItsControl" на Паркър
TheDepartmentofSociologyattheUniversityofChicagoisthefirstDepartmentofSociologyintheUnitedStates,andtheChicagoSchoolisthemostprominentinthefieldofAmericansocialsciencesinthe20thcentury.Schoolofinfluence.AmongtheChicagoSchool,theonewhohasthegreatestinfluenceoncommunicationisRobertParker,whoisknownasthe"scholarwhopioneeredthestudyofmasscommunication."
Parkerhasnotmanybooksinhislife.Otherssaythatheisthekindofpersonwhowouldratherguideotherstowrite10booksthantakethetimetowriteabookbyhimself.Inadditiontohisdoctoraldissertation,"ImmigrationNewspaperandItsControl"publishedin1922ishisonlywork.Hehasmadeaseriesofinfluentialreportsandpublishedanintroductiontohisstudents'books.However,hismostinfluentialis"ImmigrationNewspaperandItsControl",whichisbyfarthemostimportanttextbookandreadingaboutearlyAmericancommunication.
The"ImmigrationNewspaperandItsControl"consistsoffourpartsandeighteenchapters.Thefirstpartis"TheLivingSoilofImmigrationNewspapers",dividedintofourchapterstointroducethereasonsfortheexistenceofforeignlanguagenewspapers,theEuropeanbackgroundofimmigrationnewspapers,theintegrationofimmigrationnewspapersandperiodicals,andtheenlightenmentbroughtbyimmigrationnewspapers;thesecondpartis"TheStatusofForeignLanguageNewspapers"Fivechaptersanalyzeadvertising,thedevelopmentoflocalnewspapers,urbannewspapers,urbannewspapersandwars,classstruggle;thethirdpart"Historyofimmigrationnewspapers",dividedintofivechapterstointroducethenewspapersfoundedbyearlyimmigrants,laterimmigrantnewspapers,newspapersandjournalsThereflectionofitsimmigrationstatus,thestruggleforthesurvivalofnewspapersandtheresultsofthesurvivalofthefittest;thefourthpart"presscontrol",dividedintofourchapterstodiscusscontrollevers,Hemelin'smanipulationandcontrol,adversarypropagandaandgovernmentintervention,alliancecontrol.
"ImmigrationNewspaperandItsControl"cameoutasaresultofethnicworriesaboutthepossibledisloyaltyofAmericanimmigrants.WillthousandsofGerman-AmericansbeloyaltotheUnitedStatesorwilltheybeloyaltoK.William?Willtheyspreadpropaganda,orwilltheyengageinsabotage?Parkerdirectedresearchonforeignlanguagenewspapersforimmigrants.HefoundthatYiddish,Polish,GermanandothernewspapersmainlyhelpedrecentimmigrantstounderstandhowtosurviveinNorthAmerica.Fewnewspapersencourageloyaltytotheoriginalmotherland.AmericanforeignlanguagenewspapersgraduallyformedtheirownrolebyhelpingtheirimmigrantreadersassimilatetoAmericanculture.
IntheUnitedStates,Parkerwasthefirsttostudytherelationshipbetweenminorities(ethnicities)andthemedia.Attheendofthe19thcenturyandthebeginningofthe20thcentury,alargenumberofnewimmigrantscametotheUnitedStates.HowtoassimilatethesenewimmigrantswasageneralconcernofmainstreamAmericansocietyatthattime.Atthesametime,Americansocietyalsoexcludesnewimmigrants.Parkerwentdeepintoethnicminoritycommunities.Afterinvestigatingdozensofforeign-languagenewspapersandperiodicals,hepublishedamonographonimmigrationnewspapersandperiodicals"ImmigrationNewspapersandTheirControl"in1922,opposingthesuppressionorcontrolofthesenewspapers.Heemphasizedthattheirrolehelpstomaintainethnicculture,andallowsreaderstocomeintocontactwithmetropolitanlifethroughthelanguageoftheirhometown,sothatimmigrantscansmoothlyintegrateintoAmericansociety.Parkerfocusedonempiricalanalysisandtookthesolutionofsocialrealityashismainresearchdirection.HeinvestigatedtheslumsofChicagoandtheseriouscrimeproblemsatthattime.Parker'sresearchcontentandmethodshavehadahugeimpactonscholarswhostudymediafromasociologicalperspectiveinEurope,America,Japanandothercountriesinthefuture.
In"ImmigrationNewspapersandItsControl",Parkermentionedatopicthatcommunicationhasbeenstudyinguntilnow:Howdoesmediacontentaffectpublicopinion?Howisthemassmediaaffectedbypublicopinion?Canmassmediabringaboutsocialchange?Howdoesinterpersonalcommunicationconnectwithmasscommunication?ItsdefinitionofcommunicationissimilartoShannon'slaterinformationtheory.
Изборът на хората от Лазарсфийлд
PaulF.Lazarsfieldhasanimportantideologicalinfluenceontheformationofmoderncommunicationresearch,andisthepioneerofcommunicationeffectresearchBy.FromhisfirstresearchonthedisseminationeffectofradioaudiencesinViennain1930,tothe"BroadcastResearchProject"intheUnitedStatesin1937andtheUSpresidentialelectionin1940,hemadeanimpactthroughanalyticaluseofsamplesurveys.Causalinferencesaboutindividualbehavior."ThePeople'sChoice",whichwascompletedbyLazarsfeldandhisassistants,iscalled"oneofthemostcomplicatedinvestigationsinthehistoryofsocialscience",andisalsoaclassicworkoncommunicationeffects.
"People'sChoice"usesthe1940USpresidentialelectionasananalysiscasetoexplainhowvotersmakevotingchoicesundertheinfluenceofmassmediaandinterpersonalrelationships.
TheincentivethatpromptedLazarsfeldandotherstostudythebehaviorofthepublicinthepresidentialelectionwasWorldWarII.Thewarmachinedirectlypromotedmanyhumanitiesandsocialsciences,includingcommunicationstudies,intheUnitedStates.Development:Sociologistswereorderedtostudythemoraleofsoldiers,soastomakethementaloutlookoftheentirearmymoreconducivetocombat;socialpsychologistswereorderedtostudytheeffectivenessofpoliticalpropaganda,soastomakegovernmentordersmoreeasilyacceptedbythepublic;anddeepAnthropologistsfamiliarwiththeculturesofcountriesaroundtheworldareresponsibleforprovidingadvicetothegovernmenttoreducethefrictionthattheU.S.governmenthaswhendealingwithJapan,SouthKoreaandothercountries.Thesuccessofthesescholarsintheirrespectivefieldshasbroughtahighreputationandawiderrangeofresearchfieldstothehumanitiesandsocialsciences.Variousemergingresearchfieldsbasedonsocialneedshavealsopromptedthehumanitiesandsocialsciencestogetridofpurelyspeculativeresearchmethodsandreplacethemwithempiricalresearchmethods,becauseeveryresearchresultisexpectedtoexplainoractonpressingsocialissues.Thebasisforthegovernmenttoformulatepolicies.Both"People'sChoice"andPositivistCommunicationStudieswereborninthisacademicatmosphere.
Thecontributionof"People'sChoice"totheacademicthoughtofcommunicationismainlyreflectedintwoaspects.Oneisthelimitedeffecttheoryofmasscommunication,andtheotheristheformationoftheviewpointsof"two-levelcommunication"and"publicopinionleader".
Earlypropagandatheoristssupportedpowerfulmassmedia,butlatercommunicationscholarsdidnotfindsuchpowerfuleffectswhenstudyingmedia’sinfluenceonelectionbehavior,consumerdecision-making,andothertypesofbehaviorchanges.evidence.ThemainscholarwhobegantodoubtthepowerfulmassmediaeffectivenesstheorywasLazarsfield,anditwashisErieCountystudythatsparkedhissuspicion.
Lazarsfieldandothershopetoprovethatthemassmediahasadirectandpowerfuleffectinformingpeople’sintentionsabouthowtoactinthepresidentialelection.Heassumedthatvotingdecisionsinthepresidentialelectionwouldbemadeduringthecampaignandwouldbeaffectedbynewsandspecialreportsaboutelectionissuesandcandidatesinthemassmedia.Buttheresultsofthestudyrevealedtheopposite:ManyvotersinErieCountymadeuptheirmindsbeforetheelectioncampaignbegan.Only54ofthe600respondentshadswitchedfromonecandidatetoanother,andonlysomeoftheseconvertsdidsodirectlybecauseoftheinfluenceofthemassmedia.Themediacanonlyinformandpersuadesomekeyindividuals,thatis,thoseindividualswhowerelatercalled"leadersofpublicopinion,"theyinsteadcommunicatewiththeirfollowersthroughinterpersonalcommunication,thatis,useatwo-levelcommunicationandcirculationmodeltocombinethiseffect.Toexpand.
Inaddition,theintroductionofface-to-faceinterviews,groupexperiments,andquantitativeanalysismethodsintocommunicationresearchisalsoamajorcontributionofLazarsfieldtothecommunicationmethodologysystem.Reading"People'sChoice"cannotonlyhaveaclearunderstandingoftheearlydevelopmentofthedisciplineofcommunicationstudies,butalsolearnalotofeffectiveresearchmethods.
HaroldRaswell’s"TheStructureandFunctionofSocialCommunication"
ManyofusknowHaroldRaswell,mostlyfromhisfamousThe5Wpropagationmodestarted.In"TheStructureandFunctionofSocialCommunication",Laswellmadeamorecomprehensivediscussionontheprocess,structureandfunctionofsocialcommunication,andclearlyexplainedthe5Wcommunicationmodelandthethreefunctionsofmasscommunication.
In1948,Laswellpublishedanarticle"TheStructureandFunctionofSocialCommunication".Assoonasthepapercameout,itwaswidelypraisedandbecameoneoftheclassicachievementsofearlycommunicationstudies.Sofar,theacademiccirclesstillgiveitaveryhighevaluation,thinkingitisaprogrammaticmasterpiece,adeclarationofindependenceincommunicationstudies.IeventhinkthatallcommunicationstudiesseemtobeanannotationtoLaswell’sthesis,becauseitinvolvesmanybasiccontentsincommunication.Onthewhole,thesignificanceofthispaperismainlyreflectedintwoaspects:oneistoanalyzethevariouselementsofthecommunicationprocessfromtheinternalstructure;theotheristosummarizethesocialroleofcommunicationactivitiesfromtheexternalfunction.
Inthisarticle,Laswellclearlyputsforwardthecommunicationprocessanditsfivebasicelements,namely:who?What?Towhom?Whatchannel?Whateffectdiditachieve?ThisisthefamousLaswell5Wmodel,whichisconciseandclear,andisaclassicinthecommunicationprocessmodel.Manyscholarslatermadevariousrevisions,supplementsanddevelopments,butmostofthemretaineditsessentialcharacteristics.Thismodelalsolaysdownthefivebasiccontentsofcommunicationstudies:"controlanalysis","contentanalysis","mediaanalysis","audienceanalysis"and"effectanalysis".Thesefiveanalysescoverthemainareasofcommunicationresearch.Inaddition,ithasalsoledtotheemphasisondefiniteeffectsincommunicationstudies.
Anothermajorcontributionofthisarticleistoputforwardthethreebasicfunctionsofmasscommunicationandanalyzeitspossiblenegativefunctions.
Thesethreefunctionsare:monitoringtheenvironment,coordinatingsociety,andculturalinheritance.Thesethreefunctionsaremainlyfromtheperspectiveofpoliticalscience;in1959,CharlesWrightaddedthefunctionof"entertainment"fromtheperspectiveofsociology.Asaresult,theclassicfour-functiontheoryofmasscommunicationincommunicationstudieshasbeenformed.Tothisday,itisstillthebasicintroductoryknowledgethatcommunicationstudentsmustlearn.Asaninformationexchangeactivityinhumansociety,communicationhasmanysocialfunctions.AndLaswell’sexpositionprovidesabasisforcomprehensivelyrevealingthefunctionofmasscommunication.Sincethen,manyscholarshaveenrichedandexpandeditfromdifferentanglesandlevels.
Inadditiontotheabove-mentioned5Wcommunicationmodelandthethreefunctionsofmasscommunication,Laswellhasalsomademanyothercontributionsinthefieldofcommunication.Hepioneeredcontentanalysisandinventedqualitativeandquantitativemethodologiesformeasuringdisseminationofinformation;hisresearchonpoliticalpropagandaandwartimepropagandarepresentsanimportanttypeofearlycommunication,andtoday’spropagandaanalysishasbeenincludedInthegeneralsystemofcommunicationresearch;heintroducedFreud’spsychoanalytictheoryintoAmericansocialsciencesandcombineditwithpoliticalanalysis,thusapplyingtheFreudiantheorywithintheindividualonthesociallevel;healsohelpedFoundedPolicyScience,whichisaninterdisciplinarysubjectthatintegratessocialscienceknowledgeandpublicbehavior.Therefore,althoughLaswelldoesnotconsiderhimselfacommunicationscholar,thereisnodoubtthattherearemanyLaswell'sthoughtsandworksintoday'scommunicationresearchfield.Manyofhispioneeringworkshavelaidthebasicscopeandlevelofcommunicationstudies,andheiswell-deservedoneofthefoundersofcommunicationstudies.
Разпространение на полета
Lighttravelsinastraightlineinthesamehomogeneousmedium.Smallholeimaging,solarandlunareclipses,andtheformationofshadowsallprovethisfact.
Leaveasidethewavenatureoflight,andbasedonthestraightlinepropagationoflight,thedisciplinethatstudiesthepropagationoflightinmediaandthelawofobjectimagingiscalledgeometricoptics.Ingeometricoptics,ageometriclinewithanarrowrepresentsthedirectionoflightpropagation,whichiscalledaray.Geometricalopticstreatsanobjectasacombinationofcountlessobjectpoints(inapproximatecases,theobjectcanalsobeusedtorepresenttheobject),thelightbeamemittedbytheobjectpointisregardedasacollectionofcountlessgeometriclightrays,andthedirectionofthelightraysrepresentsthetransmissiondirectionoflightenergy.Theseconceptsareobviouslycontrarytothewavenatureoflight,butifthesizeoftheresearchobjectwearediscussingismuchlargerthanthewavelengthoflight,anditsfinestructuredoesnothavetobeveryrigorouslyconsidered,theconclusiondrawnbygeometricopticsisstillAgoodapproximation.(Applyingwaveoptics,youcangetarigoroussolutiontotheproblemoflightpropagation),becausethegeometricopticsmethodissimpleandconvenient,itisoftenusedinsolvingopticaltechnologyproblems.
Therearethreelawoflightpropagationingeometricoptics:(1)Thelawoflightpropagationinastraightlineisasabove.Geodesyisalsobasedonthis.(2)ThelawofindependentpropagationoflightThetwobeamsoflightdonotinterferewitheachotherwhentheymeetduringthepropagationprocess,andcontinuetopropagateaccordingtotheirrespectivepaths.Whenthetwobeamsconvergeatthesamepoint,thelightenergyatthatpointissimplyadded.(3)Thelawoflightreflectionandrefraction.Whenlightencounterstheinterfacebetweentwodifferentmediaduringitspropagation,partofitreflectsandpartofitrefracts.Reflectedlightobeysthelawofreflection,andrefractedlightobeysthelawofrefraction.
Speedoflight
Скоростта на разпространение на полета (електромагнитни вълни) във вакуум. Приетата стойност през 2013 г. е C=299792458 m/s (точна стойност)
Generallyroundedto3×108m/s,itisoneofthemostimportantphysicalconstants.
Beforethe17thcentury,astronomersandphysicistsbelievedthatthespeedoflightwasinfinite,andthatthelightemittedbystarsintheuniversereachedtheearthinstantaneously.Galileofirstraiseddoubtsaboutthis.Hedidanexperimenttomeasurethespeedoflightbetweenthetopsofthetwomountainsin1607.Becausethespeedoflightwastoohighandtheexperimentaldevicewastoorough,hewasunsuccessful.In1676,theDanishastronomerRomerusedastronomicalobservationstomeasurethespeedoflightforthefirsttime.In1849,theFrenchscientistFizeausuccessfullymeasuredthespeedoflightonthegroundusingacleverdeviceinhislaboratory.In1973,EvansonoftheAmericanBureauofStandardsusedthelasermethodtousefrequencyandwavesumtodeterminethespeedoflighttobe(299792485+1.2)m/s.Confirmedbythe15thInternationalConferenceonMetrologyin1975,theabove-mentionedspeedoflightisusedasaninternationalrecommendedvalue.Atthe17thInternationalConferenceonMetrologyin1983,thenewdefinitionofthemeterwasadoptedasthelengthoflighttravelina"vacuum"withinatimeintervalof1/299792458seconds.
Inthisway,thespeedoflighthasbecomeadefinedvalue,anditsaccuracyiszero.Therewillbenoneedforprecisemeasurementinthefuture.Thelengthunitmetersandthetimeunitsecondsaredirectlyrelatedthroughthisdefinedvalue.
Oneofthebasicprinciplesofspecialrelativityistheprincipleofconstantspeedoflight.Thisisconsistentwiththedefinitionofthespeedoflightasafixedvalue.However,therearestillpeoplewhoarestilltestingwhetherthespeedoflightisconstantwithhigheraccuracy.