International Phonetic Alphabet

History

In1886,agroupofEnglishandFrenchlanguageteachersledbyFrenchlinguistPaulPassyformedasocietytocreateasetofThephonetictranscriptionsystemforwritingandrecordinghumanlanguages​​isthepredecessoroftheInternationalPhoneticSocietyafter1897.

Thephoneticalphabettheyoriginallyusedwasbasedonaspellingreform,thatis,theRomicalphabet.Inordertomakeitusableinotherlanguages,thephoneticvaluerepresentedbythesymbolisallowedtovarywiththelanguage.Thechangewillchange.Forexample,[ʃ]wasoriginallyexpressedas⟨sh⟩inEnglish,but⟨ch⟩inFrench.

Butin1888,thesephoneticletterswererevisedintosymbolsthatwereuniformineachlanguage,andtheywerepublishedon"PhoneticTeachers"(thepredecessorof"InternationalPhoneticAssociation"-"PhoneticTeachers"ThisisthefirstIPAlistinhistory,andithasalsobecomethebasisforallfuturerevisions.Theideaof​​formulatingtheInternationalPhoneticAlphabetwasoriginallyproposedbyOttoJesperseninalettertoPaulPass.ItwaslaterimplementedbyAlexanderJohnEllis,HenrySweet,DanielJonesandPassy.

ThisinternationalphoneticalphabetwascreatedbyscholarsinBritainandFrance.ItismainlysuitableformarkingIndo-Europeanlanguages,Africanlanguages​​andsomeminoritylanguages.Afteritwaspublished,itbecamemorepopularinEuropeanlinguisticscircles.MostAmericansstillusetheirownresearchonAmericanIndiansymbols.TherearesomesoundsinthedialectsofChinese,whichcannotbeincludedinthistable.Thereareonly8tonalsymbolsspecifiedintheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet,whichisnotenoughforthestudyoftonallanguages.ChineselinguistZhaoYuanrenproposedtheLatinalphabetoftones,whichwaspublishedin"TeacherofPhonetics"in1930.Itisapplicabletoalltonallanguages​​andhasbeenadoptedbymostscholarsintheworld.

Sinceitsformulation,theInternationalPhoneticAlphabethasundergonemanyrevisions.Aftermajorrevisionsandexpansionsin1900and1932,theIPAremainedunchangeduntiltheInternationalPhoneticAssociationKielConventionin1989.

Anotherminorrevisionwasmadein1993,addinghalf-opencentralunroundedvowelsanddeletingspecialsymbolsforunvoicedinnerbrokensounds.ArevisioninMay2005addedalip-toothflickerthatisverycommoninAfricanlanguages.Exceptfortheincreaseanddecreaseofsymbols,theInternationalPhoneticAlphabetismostlyconsistentinothersymbols,classificationsandfonts.

Afterseveralrevisions,theversionrevisedin2020isnowprevailing.

Description

ItisbasedontheLatinalphabet,butduetothelargedifferencesinhumanphonetics,thelimitedLatinalphabetisfarfromenough,sothemethodofchangingthefontandborrowingthelettersofotherlanguagesToadd.Intermsofpronunciation,inordertotakecareofthehabit,mostsymbolsarebasedontheprincipleofstillreadingtheoriginalsoundsofLatinorotherlanguages.

Therefore,intheformoftheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet,thelowercaseprintoftheLatinalphabet(Romanalphabet)ismainlyused,forexample:[a,b,c,d,f,g,h,i,j,k,P]etc.Whenitisnotenough,thefollowingmethodsareusedtosupplement:

(1)Latincapitalprintingorwriting(cursive),forexample:smallcapitalprinting[ɴ,ʀ,ɢ,ʙ,ʜ]Etc.,[ɑ](handwrittena),[ʋ](cursivev);

(2)TransformationorinversionofLatinletters,forexample:[ə](invertede,anothersayyesCyrillicandnon-SlaviclettersSchwa),deformed[ɕ](curltailc),[ɖ](rightcurvedtaild),[ŋ](longrightlegn),[ʃ](extendeds),etc.

(3)Borrowotherlanguageletters,forexample:[ε](Greek),[θ](Greek),[ɫ](Polish),[ø](Danish),[ç](Catalan)andsoon.

(4)Newletters,forexample:[ɤ]etc.

(5)Addsymbolstotheletters,forexample:[ʉ](plusahorizontalu)andsoon.

TheInternationalPhoneticAlphabetwascreatedbyscholarsinBritainandFrance.ItismainlyusedtoindicatetheIndo-Europeanlanguages,Africanlanguages​​andsomeminoritylanguages.Afteritwaspublished,itbecamemorepopularinEuropeanlinguistics.MostAmericansstillusetheirownresearchonAmericanIndiansymbols.

SomesoundsinChinesedialectscannotbeincludedinthistable.Forexample,theapexvowelsinMandarinwererevisedbySwedishSinologistGaoBenhan;mostofthepalatalizedconsonantsinWudialectwereproposedbyphoneticologistZhaoYuanren.

Thereareonly8tonalsymbolsspecifiedintheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet,whichisnotenoughforthestudyoftonallanguages.ZhaoYuanrenproposedtheLatinalphabetoftones,whichwaspublishedin"TeacherofPhonetics"in1930.Itwascalled"tonealphabet".Itisapplicabletoalltonallanguages​​andhasbeenadoptedbymostscholarsintheworld.

IntheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet,squarebrackets[]ordoubleslashes//areusedtoindicate(seebelowfordetails)todistinguishthemfromordinaryletters.

Inaddition,fortheconvenienceofrecording,theInternationalPhoneticSocietyhasalsostipulatedasetof"diacritics(additionalsymbols)"forsomeimportantphonologicalaccompanyingphenomena.Forexample:"~"abovetheletterisnasalization(ẽ),forcedaspiration(small^hintheupperrightcorner),p'(weakaspiration),aː(fulllengtha),aˑ(halflength)a)Wait.Genericsymbolsandspecialsymbolsarenolongergivenexamples.

Note:DuetothefontlimitationofBaiduBaike,pleaserefertotheIPAofficialwebsiteorrelatedbooksforthespecificcharacterlist.Pleaserefertothewebsiteforallinternationalphoneticsymbols.

Advantages

TheInternationalPhoneticAlphabetstrictlystipulatestheprincipleof"onenote,onenote,onenote,onenote",thatis,"onephoneme,onesymbol,andonephoneme,onesymbol."

Inlanguages​​usingpinyinschemes,thereareoftenseveralpronunciationsofthesameletterindifferentwords.Forexample:the"i"inEnglishlikeandlitaremarkedwithinternationalphoneticaccents,whichare[ai]and[ı]respectively.Anotherexample:theaofban(班)andbang(邦)inMandarinPinyinare[a]and[ɑ]intheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(fordetails,pleaserefertothe"HanyuPinyinLettersandInternationalPhoneticAlphabetComparisonTable""Entry).

Inaddition,indifferentlanguages,thesamesoundhasdifferentspellings.Forexample:Englishsh,Frenchch,Germansch,Polishsz,andCzechsareactuallythe[ʃ]soundoftheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet.

ThesearethestrengthsoftheInternationalPhoneticSymbols,thatis,itcanrecordanddistinguishvoicesmorescientificallyandaccurately.Thevoiceisroughlyenough).ThearrangementoftheInternationalPhoneticAlphabetiseasytoanalyzeandmaster(consonantsareroughlydeterminedaccordingtothepronunciationpositionandpronunciationmethod,andthevowelsaredeterminedaccordingtotheheightofthetongue).

Transcriptionmethod

Themethodofusingphoneticsymbolstomarkspeechiscalledtranscriptionmethod.Generallydividedintotwotypes:stricttranscriptionandbroadtranscription.

Stricttranscription

Torecordavoice,theinitialmethodshouldbestricttranscription.Theso-calledstricttranscriptionmeansthatwhatphonemeappearsisrecordedasthephoneme,andifthereisanaccompanyingphenomenon,itisrecordedastheaccompanyingphenomenon.Nomatterwhatphonemeandanyaccompanyingphenomenaarenotletgo,thatis,themostfaithfulandmeticulousrecordingoftheoriginalappearanceofthevoice.Therefore,stricttranscriptionisalsocalled"phonemetranscription".Forexample:InmodernChinese,thelowerlingualvowelscanbesummarizedasaphoneme/a/.Ifstricttranscriptionisused,theymustbemarkedas[ε],[ᴀ],[a],[ɑ],[œ],[æ],etc.Itscharacteristicisthateveryphonemethatactuallyexistsinalanguageordialect(regardlessofwhethertheybelongtothesamephonemeornot)ismarkedwithaspecificphoneticsymbol.Therefore,strictphonetictranscriptionusesmanyphoneticsymbols,andthedescriptionofthephoneticdescriptionisverydetailed.Mostofthemareusedwheninvestigatingfirst-handmaterials,andonlyoccasionallyinotheroccasions.Strictphoneticsymbolsarerepresentedbysquarebrackets[].

Broad-styletranscription

Theso-calledwide-styletranscriptionistoorganizeaphoneticsystemofspeechonthebasisofstricttranscription,andthenmarkthespeechbyphoneme.Thatis,onlyphonemesarerecorded,notphonemevariantsandothernon-essentialaccompanyingphenomena.Therefore,thewide-styletranscriptionisalsocalled"phonemetranscription".Forexample:InmodernChinese,thereare[ε],[ᴀ],[a],[ɑ]andmanyotherlinguallowvowels,andonly/a/isenoughtousewide-styletranscription.Withwide-styletranscription,thenumberofphoneticsymbolscanbelimitedtoalimitedrange,sothatthephoneticsystemofalanguageordialectcanbereflectedconciselyandclearly.Broadphoneticsymbolsarerepresentedbydoubleslashes//.

PhoneticAlphabetFont

InternationalPhoneticAlphabet(2sheets)

FontmadebySILInternational:

(1)DoulosSILinternationalphoneticalphabetfont

(2)CharisSILfont

OneVerycompleteinternationalfonts,includingLatin,GreekandCyrillicletters,looklikeRomanfonts(Roman,inWindowssystems,itis"TimesNewRoman"-TimesNewRoman),includingnormalfontsanditalicsAndbold.Inadditiontoincludingthecompleteinternationalphoneticsymbols,therearealsotonalsymbolsandthelatestlip-toothphoneticsymbols,aswellasthephoneticsymbolswithpre-combinedadditionalsymbols,andmanynon-standardphoneticsymbols.

Symboltable

Consonants

Mainarticle:Consonants

Vibrato

ʙ

r̥

r

ɽ͡r̥

ɽ͡r

ʀ̥

ʀ

Note:Themark-isanimpossiblepronunciation;theblankspaceisthatthereisnosuchsoundinknownlanguages,andthefollowingsounds,implosion,Thesoundtableismarkedwiththis.

Sufficientscanberepresentedbyaddingatiebarabovetheletter.Amongthem,affricatescanalsobemarkedbyligatures,buttheInternationalPhoneticAssociationhasnolongeradoptedthismethod,becauseifthismethodisused,alargenumberofnewligaturesmustbecreatedtoexpressallaffricates.Inadditiontousingconnectingarcs,sometimesthesuperscriptmethodusedtoindicateconsonanteliminationcanbeusedtoindicateaffricates.Forexample,tˢcanmeant͡s,andkˣcanmeank͡x.Thecandɟ,whichwereoriginallyusedtodenotethehardpalate,cansometimesbeusedasconvenientwritingmethodsfort͡ʃandd͡ʒorothersimilaraffricates.EventheofficialjournalspublishedbytheInternationalPhoneticAssociationhavesuchwritingmethods,sotheyareinterpretedYoumustbeverycautiousaboutthemeaningof.

Note:WhenusingArialUnicodeMStorendertheInternationalPhoneticAlphabetinthebrowser,suchsymbolswillbewrongduetotheprogramerrorofthefontitself,sothedisplayeffectwillbebetter:ts͡,tʃ͡,tɕ͡,dz͡,dʒ͡,dʑ͡,tɬ͡,kp͡,ɡb͡,ŋm͡.

Non-pulmonaryairflowsound

Non-pulmonaryairflowsoundreferstothesoundmadewithoutthelungsexhalingair.Includingbabble(foundintheKhoisanlanguagefamilyinAfrica),implosion(foundinlanguages​​suchasAfrica,SoutheastAsia,etc.),andspray(foundinmostnativeAmericaninhabitantsandlanguages​​intheCaucasus).

Location

Doublelips

Lipteeth

Teeth

gingival

post-gingival

Tongueroll

Gingivalpalate

Hardpalate

softpalate

smalltongue

Pharynx/Epiglottis

Laryngeal/Glottis

Talkingsound

ʘ

ǀ

ǃ

ǃ̃

ǂ

ʞ

-

-

-

Singlevoice

ǁ

¡

implosion

ɓ

ɗ

ʄ

ɠ

ʛ

-

-

Squeezethethroatandburstpronunciation

p'

t'

ʈ'

c'

k'

q'

ʡʼ

-

squeezethroatfricative

ɸʼ

f'

θʼ

s'

ʃʼ

ʂʼ

tɕʼ

çʼ

x'

χʼ

-

-

Squeezethethroatplugfricative

pɸʼ

θʼ

ts'

tʃʼ

ʈʂʼ

tɕʼ

cçʼ

kx'

qχʼ

-

-

Squeezethethroatfricative

-

-

ɬʼ

ʎ̝̥ʼ

ʟ̝̊ʼ

-

-

Squeezethethroatsqueezefricatives

-

-

tɬʼ

cʎ̝̥ʼ

kʟ̝̊ʼ

-

-

Speakingsoundsaregenerallyunvoiced,voicedsoundsareaddedbelow;implosionsoundsaregenerallyvoiced,andunvoicedsoundsareaddedbelow;spoutingsoundscanonlybeunvoiced.

Vowels

Thepictureontheleftsymbolicallyshowsthepronunciationofthemouthofapersonwhofacestheleftside.Themoreyougototheleft,themoreyourtonguesticksout,andthemoreyougo,thesmalleryourmouthopens.——Inapairofsymbols,thereareroundlipsandnon-roundlipsontheleftandrightsides.Theoneontherightisaroundvowel,andtheoneontheleftisanon-roundvowel.

The"vowelmap"isalsotheleftview.Generallyspeaking,todescribeavowelfromtheperspectiveofpronunciation,therearethreemainparameters:(1)theheightofthetongue.Fromtoptobottominthepicture,correspondingtothetonguepositionfromhightolow,thatis,thesizeoftheopeningdegree.

(2)Beforeandafterthetongueposition.Fromlefttorightinthepicture,thecorrespondingtonguepositionisfromfronttoback.

(3)Theroundnessofthelips.Thetwovowelsinthesamepositioninthepicturehavethesametongueposition.Thedifferenceliesintheshapeofthelips:theleftsideistheunroundedvowel,andtherightsideistheroundedvowel.

Forexample,[a],[i],[u]arethethreemostcommonvowelsinhumanlanguage.Checkingthevoweldiagramshowsthat[a]isthefrontlowvowelwithoutroundlips,[i]isthefronthighvowelwithoutroundlips,and[u]isthebackhighvowelwithroundlips.Readerscantrytopronouncethesethreevowelsandfeelthepositionofthetongueandtheshapeofthelips.Theconnectionofthesethreevowelsand[ɑ]constitutesthepronunciationrangeofhumanvowels.Thetrapezoidinthevoweltonguetableincludesallthevowelsthatcanbepronounced.

Inadditionto"consonanttable"and"voweldiagram",thereareseveralothersymboltablesintheinternationalphoneticalphabetplan,butthearrangementismessy,unlikethe"consonanttable"and"voweldiagram".Thesystemicnatureofvoicewillnotbeintroducedhere.

Thediphthongsareusuallyrepresentedbynon-syllablesymbols,suchas⟨aɪ̯⟩.However,tiebarisalsoused,especiallywhenitisdifficulttoaccuratelyindicatewhetherthevowelison-glideoroff-glide:⟨a͡ɪ⟩,⟨o͜e⟩.

Note:Forvowelsthatappearinpairs,theleftisanunroundedvowel,andtherightisaroundedvowel.ThetwosymbolsinthesameoneareoneDifferentwritingstylesofpronunciation.

diacritics

diacritics,alsoknownasadditionalsymbols,aresmallmarksaddedaroundthephoneticsymboltoindicatethechangeinthepronunciationofthephoneticsymbol,ortomakeitmoreprecisedescriptionof.Ifthesubscriptdiacriticalmark(themarkusuallyplacedunderthephoneticsymbolorsymbol)istobeaddedtothephoneticsymbolofthedescendingpart,itcanbeplacedabovetheletter.

Wheniisaddedwithandiacriticalmark,thedotabovemaybeconfusedwiththeadditionalmark,i(ı)withoutdotshouldbeused.SomeIPAsymbolscanalsobeusedasadditionalsymbolstodescribephoneticdetails,suchas:tˢ(frictionremoval),bʱ(leaksound),ˀa(gutturalstart),ᵊ(placedinschwa),oᶷ(dualelementPhonetic).OtherdiacriticsareincludedintheIPAextension.

• Remarks

• a^AspiratedvoicedconsonantsTheaspirationisalsosound.Manylinguistsprefertousediacriticsthatrepresentleakysounds.

• b^Somelinguistsonlyusetheleakysoundsymbolforsound,andmarkthestopsoundas

bʱ.

Glottalstate

Thestateoftheglottiscanbewelldescribedwithdiacritics.Thefollowingisthepronunciationofgingivalburstfromopeningglottistoclosingglottis:

Supersegmentcomponent

Thefollowingsymbolsareusedtodescribethecharacteristicsofthelanguage’sindividualconsonantsandvowelsbeyondthelevel,suchasrhythm,tone,length,andstress.Theseareoftenusedtoindicatesyllables,vocabularyorphrases,suchasthestrengthofspeech,Thepitchandduration,aswellastherhythmandintonationinthespeech.Althoughmostofthesesymbolsareusedtoindicatephoneme-baseddistinctionsinspeechlevels,theyalsoshowthatintonationtranscendsitslevelinthevocabularyitself.

Purpose

• Usedindictionariesorforeignlanguagetextbookstoexpresspronunciation,tofacilitatetheacquisitionofasecondlanguage.

• Thelanguageusedforfieldworkrecordsandformsthebasisofalanguagewritingsystem.

• Annotatetheacousticorotherdisplaysofspeechanalysis.

• Usedforpreparationbeforesinging.

Otherphoneticsymbols

Chinesephoneticsymbols

Thefollowing9phoneticsymbolsarecommonlyusedinChineselinguistics,buttheyarenotCanbeacceptedbytheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet.ThereareexclusivesymbolsinUnicode,buttheyneedthesupportofUnicode4.0andabove.Theyarenotvisibleinsomefontswithinternationalphoneticsymbols(suchasLucidaSansUnicode).

NinephoneticsymbolsnotacceptedbytheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet:ɿ,ʅ,ʮ,ʯ,ȶ,ȡ,ȵ,ᴀ,ᴇ.

• ^1SomescholarshavetranslatedthePinyin⟨shi⟩and⟨si⟩ofmodernstandardChineseinto[ʂ͡ɨ]and[s͡ɯ].