Empireestablishment
Mainentry:RomanRepublic
TheendoftheRomanRepublicwasaturbulentera.In44BC,GaiusJuliusCaesarwasassassinated,andhiswillappointedOctavianashisheir.Octavian,whowas19yearsoldatthetimeandwasintheGreekApolloniaArmy,immediatelymarchedbacktoRomeafterlearningaboutit.RomeatthistimeisinthehandsofBrutusandCassius,therepublicanelderswhomurderedCaesar.OctavianmanagedtoformanalliancewithCaesar'scolleaguesMarkAnthonyandLepida,whichisknownasthelatterthreeallianceinhistory.ThethreebegantocleanuptheheresyoftheSenate,andmorethanahundredsenatorsandthousandsofknightswerekilled.AntonyandOctavianledanarmytopursueBrutusandCassiuswhohadfledtotheeast.In42BC,BrutusandCassiuscommittedsuicideinthebattleofPhilippi.OctavianreturnedtoRome,andAnthonywenttoEgypttoallywithCaesar’slover,CleopatraVII(Cleopatra),QueenofthePtolemaicdynastyofEgypt.Atthispoint,RomebelongedtoOctavianinthewestandAnthonyintheeast.
AnthonyfocusedontheParthianwarintheEast,andalwaysmaintainedacloserelationshipwiththeQueenofEgypt.OctavianmadealotofpeopleinRome,consolidatedpower,andatthesametimeslanderedAntony,claimingthathehadcolludedwithforeignforcesandrebelledagainstRome.Thecontradictionbetweenthetwosideshasbecomeincreasinglyfierce.Finally,inthefirst32years,OctaviandeclaredwaronAnthony.InSeptember31BC,thecoalitionforcesofAnthonyandtheQueenofEgyptfoughtOctavianatCapeActinginGreece,knownastheBattleofActing.Asaresult,AnthonywasdefeatedandfledbacktoEgyptwiththequeen.Inthefirst30years,whenOctavianinvadedEgypt,AntonyandtheQueencommittedsuicide.TheQueenandCaesar'sillegitimatesonCaesarLeonwasexecuted,andthePtolemaicdynastyperished.Atthispoint,EgyptbecameaprovinceofRome.
Inthefirst27years,Octaviancleverlyusedpoliticalskillstodeclaretotheoutsideworldthathewouldseverallpowersandrestoretherepublic;ontheotherhand,hepretendedtobeforcedbytherequestoftheSenateandcitizenstoacceptthatitwascompletelycontrarytotherepublic.Theabsolutepowertobecomethechiefelder(thatis,theheadofstate,fromwhichtheheadofstatesystemcame),thesupremeconsul,thelife-longconsul,thelifeguarantor,thechiefpriest,etc.,claimingtobethe"firstcitizen",thesupremecommander(ortranslatedas""GeneralTriumph","GrandMarshal"),andwonthetitlesof"Augustus"(meaning"sacred")and"FatheroftheFatherland"awardedbytheSenate.ThiswonderfulperformancebyOctavianannouncedtheestablishmentoftheRomanEmpire.
Transitionanddevelopment
Mainentry:JuliaClaudiussub>
DuringthereignofAugustus,hereformedthemilitary,reducedarmaments,andestablishedthefirststandingarmyandguardsintheempire;setupacabinettoassisttheemperorinhandlinggovernmentaffairs;The"NationalTaxationBureau"wasestablishedtocontrolthefinancialpower;theadministrativedivisionswerereorganized,andtheprovincesoftheSenateandtheemperorweredividedtoestablishtheemperor'shighestmilitarypower.AugustususeddiplomaticmeanstoestablishfriendlyrelationswithParthiaandArmenia.
Inthefirst19years,theempireconqueredallofSpain.Beginning16yearsago,AugustussenttroopstotheeasternAlpsandtheupperreachesoftheDanube,settinguptwoprovinces,RetiaandNorric,andthensenttroopstothemiddleandlowerreachesoftheDanube,settinguptwoprovinces,PannoniaandMessia.Inthefirst12to5years,thelandbetweentheRhineandtheElbewasgraduallyconquered,butthenewlyconqueredlandcontinuedtoriot.In9years,thegeneralVaruswasambushedinthebattleoftheTeutoburgForesttosuppresstheGermanuprisingandwasannihilated.AugustushadtoabandonthelandbetweentheRhineandtheElbe.Sincethen,theexpansionoftheRomanEmpiretoWestGermanyceased.Augustusdidnotcarryoutanymajorexpeditions,andthefollowingtwocenturieswerealongperiodofstability,calledthe"RomanPeace"period.
In14years,AugustusdiedandpasseddownhisadoptedsonTiberius.Inordertostrengthentheimperialpower,Tiberiusabolishedthelegislativepowerandvotingpowerofthecitizens'assembly,andconcentratedtheguardstoRometodefendtheemperor.Tiberiushadacoldandharshpersonality.Inthelaterperiodofhisreign,heactedarbitrarilyandrepeatedlysanctionedagainstorcriticizedtheemperor'swordsanddeeds.HedemandedthattheSenatecouldonlyexpressthesameopinionsashim,andtherelationshipbetweentheSenateandthefamilywasstrained.HeretiredtoCapriin26years,whereheruledRomefornearlytenyears.In37years,TiberiusdiedofCapri.
AfterthedeathofTiberius,theGuardsmadeCaligulatheemperor.ThisisthefirsttimeinRomanhistorythatanarmyhassupportedanemperor.Intheearlydaysofhisreign,Caligulawasgenerousandgenerous,andwasuniversallylovedbythepeople.Inthelaterperiod,hesuddenlysufferedfrommentalillness,ignoredstateaffairs,indulgedinentertainmentactivities,becamemoody,brutalandbloodthirsty,oftenexecutedSenatemembersandnoblesandconfiscatedtheirproperty.For40years,helecturedinRometopromotepersonaldictatorshipanddeifytheemperor.In41,Caligulawaskilledbytheguards.
AfterCaligula'sdeath,theguardssupportedhiselderlyuncleClaudiusascendedthethrone.DuringClaudius’sreign,hereformedgovernmentagenciesandestablishedabureaucraticsystem:thecentralgovernmenthasthreedepartments,namelytheSecretariat(inchargeofinternalaffairs,military,andforeignaffairs),theFinanceDepartment(inchargeoffinances),andtheJudicialDepartment(inchargeoflaws)..Improvedthestatusofknights,andgrantedRomancitizenshiptoresidentsoftheprovince.Asaresult,provincialnoblescanalsoserveasseniorofficialsorentertheSenate.Intermsofexternalexpansion,ithasconqueredsouthernBritainandMauritania.ClaudiusalsobuilttheportofOstiaatthemouthoftheTiberRiverandalarge-scalewaterpipeline.In54years,ClaudiusmaybepoisonedtodeathbyQueenAgrippinatheYounger.
AfterClaudiusdied,hisadoptedsonNerocametothethrone.DuringNero'sreign,heformulatedanumberofpoliciesthatbenefitedthecommonpeople.TheappointmentofthefamousplayerCorbrosuccessfullyresolvedthecrisisbetweenParthiaandArmenia.Butatthesametime,hewasalsoafamoustyrantinRomanhistory,cruelandtyrannical,andmurderedmothersandwives.Heispassionateaboutartandconsidershimselfa"greatartist".In64,afirebrokeoutinRome,andalmostallofthecitywasburneddown.Afterthefire,Nerobegantobuildanewpalacenamed"GoldenPalace".RumorsspreadinRome:Nerosetfiretobuildanewpalace.Inordertoeliminaterumors,NerousedChristiansasscapegoatstohuntandkillthem.In1966,theJewishWarbrokeoutinPalestine.Atthistime,NerowenttoGreeceforalongarttour.AsNerofellinpower,uprisingsagainstNerobrokeouteverywhere.InMarch1968,theGovernorofGaulWendéxandtheGovernorofSpainGarbarebelled.InMay,Wendikeswasdefeatedanddied.Atthistime,theSenatedeclaredNerotobeapublicenemyofthecountry,andNerocommittedsuicidewhilefleeing.
Mainentry:TheYearoftheFourEmperors
AfterNero'sdeath,theSenaterecognizedGarbaasemperor.DuetoGarba'soldageandfrailty,unabletocontrolthesituation,leadinggeneralsaroundtheworldhaveastrongsenseofself-respect.InJanuary1969,Vitrius,governorofLowerGermania,proclaimedhimselfemperor,whileGarbawaskilledbyhissubordinatesOtto,whomadehimselfemperor.InMarch,VitriussenttroopstocompetewithOttoforthethrone,andOttocommittedsuicideindefeat.InJuly,WeiPaxiang,thegeneralwhowasquellingtheJewishrebellion,wasadoptedasemperorbymanytroops.InOctober,WeiPaxiangdefeatedVitriusandendedthebattleforthethrone.
Stabilizationandconsolidation
Mainentry:FlavicDynasty
InDecember69,WeiPaxiangbecameemperor.AfterWeiPaxiangbecameemperor,theempirewasfacingacrisis,andhefirstsuppressedtheuprisingsinvariousplaces.In70years,successfullysuppressedtheBadawirebellion.Inthesameyear,hissonTituscapturedJerusalem,massacredalargenumberofJews,andburneddowntheJewishtemple.TheJewishWarended.Inordertomakeupforthefinancialproblemscausedbythecivilwar,WeiPaxiangstrengthenedtaxationmanagementandincreasedprovincialtaxestorectifythemilitaryandinternalaffairs.Duringhisreign,hevigorouslystrengthenedthestatusoftheprovince.In1973,headdedthenoblesofvariousprovincestotheSenateandgrantedRomancitizenshiptomanynoblesoftheprovinces,allowingthenoblesoftheprovincestoparticipateinpoliticsextensively.
In1979,WeiPaxiangdiedandhissonTitusbecamethethrone.Titusismoderateinpolitics.Inthefirstyearofhistenure,MountVesuviuseruptedandburiedPompeii;afterthat,firesandplaguesbrokeoutinRome.Titusranaround,tiredofdisasterreliefwork.
In1981,TitusdiedandhisyoungerbrotherDomitiancametothethrone.Domitianvigorouslypromotedtheimperialpower,consolidatedtheheadofstatesystem,reformedthecabinet,andfurtherattractedtheknightlyclasstoparticipateinpolitics.Intermsofexternalexpansion,heachievedsuccessinSouthGermany,buildingtheGermanGreatWall,connectingtheRhineandtheupperreachesoftheDanubeintoonebodyandincorporatingitintotheempire'sterritory.However,helosttwiceinthewaragainstDaciaandfinallygavegiftstomakepeace.Domitianwasanautocraticdictatorship,whoregardedhimselfas"theLordandGod"anddespisedtheSenate.In1989,Domitianexecutedalargenumberofeldersanddignitariesunderthepretextofsupportingtherebellion,whichcausedpanicamongthepeople.In1996,Domitiandiedinacourtcoup.
Prosperity
Mainentry:AntonianDynasty
AfterDomitian'sdeath,theSenateelectedNerva,anoldandheirlessformerconsulasemperor.Nervarespectedandtreatedthesenatorswell,andtheauthorityoftheSenatewasrestoredtosomeextent.Buthewasquiteunpopularwiththearmyandmilitarycommanders.Inordertowinthesupportofthearmy,NervaselectedtheoutstandingGermanicgovernorTrajanashisadoptedsoninthesecondyearofhisascension,successfullyquellingthearmy'sdissatisfaction.
In1998,NervadiedandTrajancametothethrone.Hewasthefirstemperorfromaprovincialnobleman.TrajancontinuedtoimplementNerva'spolicyoftreatingtheelderswell,vigorouslyconstructingpublicfacilities,andactivelyexpandingabroad.Duringhisreign,theterritoryoftheRomanEmpirereacheditsmaximum.From101onwards,TrajanledhisarmytoinvadeDacia,andin106itwascompletelyconquered,andDaciaprovincewasestablished.Trajanheldagrandtriumphalceremony,announcingthecelebrationof123days,andbuilttheancientRomanTrajanPillar.In105,TrajanoccupiednorthernArabiaandestablishedArabprovinces.In114,TrajanannexedArmeniaandestablishedtheArmenianProvince.Afterthat,TrajancontinuedtoadvanceeastwardanddefeatedtheParthianarmy.In116,heoccupiedthecapitalofParthianTaisifeng.Attheendoftheyear,Trajan'ssoldiersarrivedinthePersianGulf,andhewastheonlyRomancommanderwhohadreachedhere.In117,Trajan'sdiseasewasseverelywithdrawn,andtwoprovinces,AssyriaandMesopotamia,wereestablished.Beforehedied,Hadrianwasannouncedasanadoptedson.
AfterTrajan'sdeath,Hadrianascendedthethrone.Hadrianturnedoffensivetodefensive,givingupthelandthatTrajanhadconqueredintheeast.DuringHadrian'sreign,hetraveledmanytimes,andhisfootprintscoveredalmosttheentireempire.Duringthisperiod,hebuilttheeast-west"Hadrian'sWall"inthenorthernpartoftheBritishIslestodefendagainsttheintrusionofthebarbariansinScotland;unifiedrecruitmentstandards,strengthenedthequalityofthearmy,andestablishedatemporaryarmysystem.Hadrianfurtherenhancedtheimperialpower,takingthewilloftheemperorasthesupremelaw,andorderedjuriststocompilethe"PermanentEdict"asthelegalbasisoftheempire;vigorouslystrengthenthestatusofknightsandmakeitaspecificbureaucraticclass;continueandstrengthentheprovinceTheRomanizationofthecountrynarrowedthedistancebetweentheprovincialcitiesandRome.HealsorebuiltthefamousPantheoninRome.In131,HadrianbannedJewsfromcircumcision,SabbathandreadingJewishlaws.ThistriggeredaJewishuprising.TheRomanarmykilled580,000Jewsintwoyearstosuppresstheuprising.HadrianbannedJewsfromlivinginJerusalem,andalargenumberofJewshaveneversettledinJerusalem.Hadrianattachesgreatimportancetotheissueofheirs.Hechosea52-year-oldmemberofParliament,AntonniAsylum,ashisadoptedson,andaskedhimtoadopt18-year-oldmemberofParliamentMarcoAureliusand7-year-oldLuciusViru.Siistheadoptedson.
In138,Hadrianpassedaway,andhisadoptedson,AntoniAsylum,tookthethrone.DuringAntoniAsylum’sreign,heconvergedonthebordersandwasgenerallyfine;hehadagoodrelationshipwiththeSenate,hadagoodrelationshipwiththeSenate,andenjoyedapeacefulandprosperousperiodinRomeformorethan20years.
In161,AntoniusPiusdied,andthethronewasinheritedbytwoadoptedsons,VerusandMarcoAurelius.ThiswasthefirsttimeinRomanhistorythatthetwoemperorsruledtogether.MarcoAureliusisthefamous"philosopheremperor"andthemainexpounderofStoicphilosophy.Heistheauthorof"Meditations",whileVerusismoremediocre.
Whenthetwocametothethrone,thesituationontheborderoftheempirewassevere.ParthiainvadedArmeniain162.Afterfouryearsofhardwork,VerusrepelledParthiaandannexedMessofrom164to165.NorthofPotamia.In167,theGermansinvadedagain,andthetwoemperorshadtoleadtheirtroopstoconquer.Duetofinancialconstraints,thesilvercontentofthedinarsilvercoinwasfurtherreduced.In169,Velusdied,andtheempirewasrestoredtothesituationofanemperor.InordertorelievethepressureoftheGermansontheempire,MarcoAureliusallowedthemtosettleontheborderoftheempire,layingahiddendangerforfuturebarbarianinvasions.In175,thegeneralAvidiusCassiuslaunchedarebellionintheeasternpartoftheempire,anditwasquicklysuppressed.MarcoAureliusthenlaunchedawaragainsttheGermansinanattempttoannexBohemia.In180,justbeforesuccess,MarcoAureliusdiedofillness.
MarcoAureliuswasarelativelygreatemperor.Duringhisreign,hewasdiligentandlovingthepeople,activelyhandledgovernmentaffairs,andguardedthebordersoftheempire.However,duringthisperiod,theGermanicbarbarianincursionsintensified,theborderdefenselinehasbeeninastateoflosingground,andthedomesticeconomicsituationisdeterioratingdaybyday.Afterhisdeath,theRomanEmpiregraduallybegantodecline.
Fromprosperitytodecline
AfterthedeathofMarcoAureliu,hisson,KangMaode,succeededtothethrone.Intheearlydaysofhisreign,Commodoredidnotdaretoindulge,andrespectedtheeldersappointedbyMarcoOleliutoassisthimduringhislifetime.In182,hissisterLucillaandsomeelderstriedtoassassinatehim.Aftertheincident,heexecutedeveryoneinvolvedintheassassinationandmanyinnocentpeople.Fromthenon,KangMaodenolongertrustedtheelders,andhandedoverthepoliticalaffairstothefavoredministerandthecommanderoftheguards.Inthelatereign,hewascruelandsuspicious.Helikedcircus,wrestlingandothersportsactivities.HeclaimedtobethereincarnationofHercules.
Commod'srulecauseddissatisfactionamongthepeople,andmanypeopleconspiredtoassassinatehim,whichalsomadehimmoreweirdandtyrannical.Attheendof192,whenCommodoreannouncedthathewouldbedressedasagladiatorastheconsul,hismistressgavehimaglassofpoisonandwassubsequentlymurderedbyawrestlersentbythecommanderoftheGuards.
Mainentry:TheYearoftheFiveEmperors
KangAfterthedeathofProud,theGuardsadoptedthecitygovernorPettinaxasemperor.PettinaxactivelyquelledthenegativeimpactofCommodoreontheempire,butwhenhewantedtocleanupmilitarydiscipline,hewasimmediatelykilledbytheguards.
AfterPetinax'sdeath,theGuardsunexpectedlyannouncedthatthethronewouldbeauctioned,andthosewhobidmorecanbecometheemperor.Aftercompetitionamongmanypeople,Julianusboughtthethroneatapricesatisfiedbytheguards.ButJulianusdidnothaveafollower,andthearmydismissedhimevenmore.TheSyriangovernorNageltooktheleadinestablishinghimselfasemperor,andthenthegovernorofPannoniaandtheNorthAfricanSeverusrebelled.HeledthetroopsquicklytoRome.Themoraleoftheguardswaslowandtheywerequicklydefeated.TheSenateinsteaddeclaredSeverusemperor.TheGuardsexecutedJulianustorequestSeverus'forgiveness.AfterenteringRome,Severusexecutedalltheoriginalguardsonchargesoftreason,andformedalargernewguardwithhisownsoldiers.
Thecrisisbegins
Mainentry:SeverusDynasty
AfterSeverusbecameemperor,heimmediatelywenttowarwithNigel,whohadalreadybecomeemperor.In194,NigelwasdefeatedatIssus.In197,SeverusdefeatedtherebelliousBritishGovernorAlbanusinLyon,andthecivilwarfrom193ended.Severuswasasoldierandhewasaccustomedtoactingarbitrarily.HedidnotputtheSenateinhiseyesandremovedmanysenatorsfromimportantpositionsandreplacedthemwithcroniesandknights.Severus’rulewasbackedbythearmy.HeexpandedhisarmyaggressivelyandexpandedtheRomanarmytoanunprecedentedlevel.Mostofthemwereforeigners,andtheyusedhighratestowinoverthearmy,andhewasnotstingywithrewards.Severusachievedconsiderablemilitarysuccess.Inadditiontoendingthecivilwar,healsodefeatedParthiain197andonceagainannexednorthernMesopotamiaandsetitasaprovince.Severustransitionedtheheadofstatetoanabsolutemonarchy.Thejuristsatthetimesaidthat"heisnotsubjecttoalllawsandistherulerofanyone,andtheempireishisproperty."In208,SeverussenttroopstoBritaintoconquersouthernScotland.In211,hediedofillnessinYork.Attheendofhislife,hislastwordstothetwosonswere:"Mayyourbrothersgetalongwitheachothersothatthesoldierscangetrichanddon’tcareaboutothers."
AfterSeveru’sdeath,thetwosonsCaracallaandGettaAtthesametimeascendedthethrone.Caracallawasanothertyrant,andthefollowingyear,hekilledhisbrotherGetaandhiscomrades.Hiswife,father-in-lawandmanyfamouspeoplewerealsokilled.CaracallacontinuedtoimplementSeverus’policyofpreferentialtreatmenttothearmy.Inordertoincreaseincomeandexpandtaxsources,CaracallaissuedtheAntoninusedictin212,grantingallfreecitizensintheempiretherightofRomancitizenship.In217,CaracallawaskilledbytheguardswhenhesetouttoParthia.
AfterCaracallawaskilled,thecommanderoftheGuards,Maclinus,establishedhimselfastheemperor,andhissonDiadomenianwastheco-emperor.AfterMaclinussucceededtothethrone,heacceptedextremelyunfavorableterms,endedthewarwithParthia,andreducedmilitaryexpenditures,whichledtodissatisfactionwiththearmy.In218,Severus’wifeandsisterJuliaMisaincitedarebellion,andbothMaclinusandDiadomenianwerekilledinAsiaMinor.
Misathenmadehis13-year-oldgrandsonElagabalustheemperor.ElgabalusworshipedtheEasterngods,waslicentious,ignoredstatepolitics,andhadaverypoorrelationshipwiththeSenateandthearmy.In222,MisaacquiescedinkillinghimbytheGuardsandmadehis14-year-oldgrandsonAlexanderSeverusemperor.DuringthereignofAlexanderSeverus,relationswiththeSenateimproved.In231,AlexanderSeveruswenttotheeasttofightagainsttheemergingempireofSasanianPersia.Thesituationimprovedslightly,andherushedtothewesttoresisttheGermanicinvadingsouth.In235,thearmyrebelledandAlexanderSeveruswaskilled.
Crisisclimax
Mainentry:Thethirdcenturycrisis
AfterthedeathofAlexanderSeverus,thearmyadoptedThracianMaximinusasemperor.Maximinuscamefromabarbarianandwasdespisedbyothers,sohetreatedtheSenateandthepeoplewithbrutalmethods.In238,theSenatesecretlyinstructedtheguardstokillhim.Inthesameyear,theSenateintroducedfouremperors,allofwhichwerekilled.GordianIII,whosubsequentlytookthethrone,wasonly13yearsoldandwasapuppetoftheGuards.In244,thearmysupportedPhiliptheArab.In247,Philiporganizedthecelebrationofthe1000thanniversaryofthefoundingofRome.In249,PhilipwaskilledbytherebelgeneralDecius.DeciusdiedinthewarwiththeGothsin251.DuringthereignofGallus,aprotractedplaguebrokeout.Gallusdiedatthehandsofsoldiersin253.TheascendedValerianandhissonGalienusledtwoarmies,oneresistingSassanidPersiaintheeast,andtheotherresistingtheGermansinthewest.Thiswasthefirsttodividetheempirefromeasttowest.In260,thegeneraloftheRhineregion,PersDumusestablishedhimselfasemperor,establishedtheGaulEmpire,andruledGaul,Britain,andmostofSpain.Inthesameyear,ValerianwascapturedwhilefightingPersia,buttheresultisunknown.In267,Palmyraintheeastbecameindependent,splittingpartoftheeasternprovinces.
Atthistime,thechaosoftheRomanEmpirereacheditsextreme.Theempirewasdividedintothree,andthecentralgovernmentwasalmostparalyzed.Theemperornotonlyhadtofaceexternalenemies,butalsosuppressedtherebelliousarmiesandrebelliouspeoplefromtimetotime.Inaddition,thearmycontinuestosupportthenewemperor,hopingformorerewards.Iftherewardisnotgenerous,theemperorwillbekilled.In268,GaryEnnusreformedthemilitary,dismissedothermilitarypositions,andestablishedanewreservearmystationedinMilan,withMilanasthemilitarycapitaloftheempire.ThereformedarmysuccessfullydefeatedtheEasternGothicoffensive.In269,theBhagadamovementbrokeoutintheGaulregionbyslavesandfarmers'uprisings.Theinsurgentsestablishedthemselvesasemperorsandmintedcoins,whichlasteduntil286.
TheIllyrianEmperors
Galiennuswaskilledbyhismenlessthanayearafterreformingthemilitary,andClaudiusIIcametothethrone.HedefeatedtheAlamanifirst,thendefeatedapowerfulGothicarmy,andwonthetitleof"BrotherFeatureServant".
ClaudiusIIdiedoftheplaguein270,andAurelianascendedthethrone.AurelianstrucktheGothsagaininPannoniaandendedtheinvasionoftheGoths.ThenheledthearmytodefeatthePalmyraEmpire,regainedAsiaMinorandSyria,thenattackedthecityofPalmyra,capturedPalmyraQueenZinobia,andtookPalmyrain273.Thecitywasrazedtotheground.Inthesameyear,theGaulEmperorTetricusI,inordertosuppressthedomesticuprising,appealedtoOlelianforhelp,expressinghiswillingnesstogiveupindependence,andGaul,BritainandSpainwerereintegratedintotheempire.Aurelianreunitedtheempire,sohewascalledthe"WorldRestorer".Inordertostrengthenthedefense,Aurelianbuiltanewwall20kilometerslongand6metershighforRome,andabandonedDaciainordertousethenaturaldangersoftheDanubetodefend.
In275,AurelianwaskilledduringanexpeditiontoSasanianPersia,andtheSenateappointedClaudiusTacitusasemperor.ThiswasthelasttimethattheSenateelectedanemperor.Tacitusdiedayearafterhisreign,andthearmysupportedProbus.ProbussmashedtheGermanicinvasionofGaulinthreewaysandexpelledtheVandalsfromtheBalkans.
In282,ProbuswaskilledandMarcoAureliusCarusascendedthethrone.CarusonceagaindefeatedtheGermansinthenorthandattackedPersia,onceoccupyingTessifon.In283,Carusdiedviolently,andhissonCarinussucceeded.In284,thecommanderoftheGuards,Diocletian,rebelledanddefeatedKarinusnearBelgradeandbecametheruleroftheempire.
Stabilityandreform
Mainentry:TheFourEmperors'Co-governmentSystem
AfterDiocletianbecameemperor,hechangedtheheadofstatetoarealmonarchy.Themonarchworeacrownandsilkrobe,andhissubjectswererequiredtobowdowntothemonarch;themonarchwascalled"Lord"andwasworshipedasagod.DiocletianclaimedtobetheincarnationofJupiter.Theimperialpowerhasreacheditslimit.In286,DiocletianawardedGeneralMaximianthetitleof"Augustus"andappointedhimtheco-emperorofthewesternpartoftheempire.In287,thecommanderoftheBritishFleet,Karlusius,rebelledandclaimedtheemperor,occupyingthenorthwestofBritainandGaul.Itwassettledin296.In288,DiocletiansuccessfullyconsolidatedtheEuphratesRiverdefenselineandwasawardedthetitleof"PersianConqueror"bytheSenate.Inthesameyear,heledhisarmybackwestfromAntioch,Syria,andwenttotheDanubetoassistMaximianwhowasinGaul.In290,theGaulsuppressionbanditendedandonceagainwenttoSyriatosuppresstherebellionoftheArabnomads.In291,repelledthenativeswhoinvadedtheempireintheupperreachesoftheNile.In292,hereturnedtotheDanubeandrepelledthenorthernGermanicbarbarianSalmatianswhohadgoneacrossHenan.In293,Diocletianfirstbegantoimplementthe"fouremperorsco-governancesystem",asfollows:
Direction | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
EasternEmpire | Augustus(EmperorZheng) | Diocletian | NicoMedea | AsiaMinor,Syria,PalestineandEgypt |
Caesar(ViceEmperor) | Galerius | Belgradenearb> | DanubeSouthoftheDanubePannoniAsia、Mercia、ThraceandBalkanPeninsula | |
WesternEmpire | Augustus(TheEmperor) | Maximian | Milan | SouthoftheUpperDanube,Corsica,Sardinia,SicilyIsland,Algeria,TunisiaandLibya |
Caesar(ViceEmperor) | ConstantiusI | Trier | Britain、Gaul |
Diocletianstipulated:thetwoAugustus(primeemperor)intheeastandwestoftheempireeachappointaCaesar(deputyemperor),andAugustusreigned20yearslaterMustabdicate,succeededbytheoriginaltwoCaesarsasAugustus,andappointaCaesareach.Theimplementationofthefouremperors'co-governanceisnottodividetheempireintofourparts,buttoentrustthedefenseoftheempiretothefouremperors.Diocletian'spositionisstillthehighestamongthefour.
Diocletianfirstreducedthesizeoftheprovinces,dividedabout100provinces,andestablishedadministrativeregionstocommandmorethanadozenprovinces,andthelocalgovernorsdidnotholdmilitaryposts.Diocletianreformedthemilitaryanddividedthearmyintofrontierguardsandfieldforces.Thefrontierguardswereusedtoresistforeignenemyinvasions,andthefieldtroopswereusedtosuppresspeople'suprisingsandmilitarymutinies,aswellasmobileoperationsagainstlarge-scaleforeignenemies.Healsoreducedthesizeofthecorpsandincreasedthenumberofcorpsfordispatch.SinceDiocletiandividedtheempire,eachemperorhadalargenumberofsoldiers,whichgreatlyincreasedtheeconomicburdenoftheempire.Therefore,Diocletianfirstimplementedthenewtaxsystem,changedthecurrencysystem,adjustedprices,andpromulgatedthe"PriceOrder",buttheywerenotsuccessful.In297,Diocletian'sco-rulerGaleriusinvadedSassanidPersia,andin298,heoccupiedTessifon.In299,apeacetreatywasconcludedwithSassanidPersia,andRomegainedcontrolofnorthernMesopotamiaandArmenia.AfterDiocletianreignedfor20years,heabdicatedin305,whileMaximianalsoabdicated.
ConstantineI,whotookthethroneasAugustusinthewest,diedjustoverayearafterhereignedinBritain.HissonConstantineI(i.e.ConstantinetheGreat)Ascendedtothethronewiththesupportofthearmy.WhenConstantineIcametothethrone,heonlyoccupiedBritainandGaul.Italy,SpainandNorthAfricawerecontrolledbyMaximian’ssonMaxentius.In312,hedefeatedMaxentiusandunifiedthewest.
Intheeast,afterthedeathofAugustusGaleriusin311,Lisini,whoascendedthethrone,defeatedDeya,whooccupiedEgyptandpartoftheAsianterritories,andunifiedtheeast.In313,ConstantineIandLisiniissuedthe"MilanEdict"declaringChristianitylegal.In314,thetwoclashesbrokeout.LiXiniwasdefeatedandforcedtoabandontheEuropeanregionexceptThrace.In323,thetwofoughtagain,LiXinniwasdefeated,andConstantineIbecamethesoleruleroftheempire.
ZTEandtransformation
Mainentry:ConstantineDynasty
WhenConstantineIcametothethrone,hewasexhaustedallovertheempire.HeadoptedamethodsimilartoDiocletianandappointedhisthreesons,ConstantineIIandConstantine.TiusIIandConstantineIwerepartofCaesar’srulingempires:ConstantinetheGreatruledtheBalkansandtheBlackSea,ConstantineIIruledSpain,GaulandBritain,ConstantineTheusIIruledtheEastandEgypt,andConstantineIruledItalyandAfrica.ConstantineIreformedtheadministrativedivisionsanddividedthecountryintofourmajoradministrativeregions,oneundertheadministrativedistrict,andthenundertheprovince.Ontheeconomicside,Diocletian’spolicywascontinued,whichstipulatedoccupationalhereditary,fixedpeasantsontheland,andpromulgatedlawstoreaffirmthestatusofslaveowners.Intermsofmilitaryaffairs,theguardswereabolishedandreplacedbythePaladinCavalryGuards,andalargenumberofbarbarianswererecruitedintothearmy,whichcomprehensivelyimprovedthecombateffectivenessoftheRomanarmy.Heusedterrortoforceconscription,andthosewhorefusedtobecomeasoldiercouldbeputtodeath.Intermsofreligion,thefirstCouncilofNiceawasheldin325,whichdeterminedmanybasicChristiandoctrinesanddenouncedArianismasaheresy.AseriesofhisactionslaidthefoundationforthedominanceofChristianityinEuropeinthefuture.
Since324,ConstantineImadegreateffortstobuildthenewcapitalConstantinoplebesidetheBosphorus,knownasNewRome.Itwasinitiallycompletedin330years,anditsspecialgeographicalenvironmentandstrategicpositionwereanimportantreasonwhytheEasternRomanEmpiresurvivedthousandsofyears.In337,ConstantineIdiedandwasbaptizedbeforehisdeath.
AfterthedeathofConstantineI,theRomanEmpireimmediatelyfoughtforthethrone.ConstantineII,ConstantineI,andMagnentiuswerekilledoneafteranother.In353,ConstantiusIIbecamethesoleruleroftheempire.In361,Julian,theapostate,cousinofConstantiusII,rebelled.ConstantiusIIdiedonthewaytoconquerJulian,andJuliantookpower.UndertheinfluenceofNeo-Platonism,Julianimplementedananti-Christianpolicyafterheassumedthethroneandvigorouslysupportedpolytheism.HeaggressivelyattackedChristianity.Churcheswereburnedandlooted.Christiansweredrivenoutofthearmyandschools.HehimselfwroteabooktoattackChristianity.Ontheeconomicfront,Juliansucceededinstoppinginflation.Military,hedefeatedtheGermansandinvadedthePersianSassaniddynasty.In363,Julianwaskilledinbattle,andtheascendedJoviancancelledJulian'santi-Christianpolicy.
Decline
Mainentry:ValentinianDynasty
In364,Joviandied(probablyduetofoodpoisoning),DanubeofficerValentinianIwasmadeemperorbythearmy,andthenheappointedhisbrotherValenceasthecommunistpartyintheeasternpartoftheempire.Ruletheemperor.ValentinianIgarrisonedMilan,ValencegarrisonedConstantinople.In376,ValentinianIdiedandValentinianIIascendedthethrone.In378,ValencewaskilledinabattleagainsttheGothsinAdrianople,andtheempirewasgovernedbyGratianandTheodosiusI.WhenGratiandiedin383,TheodosiusImadepeacewiththeGoths,allowingthemtosettleintheterritory,jointhearmyandserveasofficials.In388,hedefeatedtheusurpersMagnusMaximusandFlaviusVictorinthewest.In392,ValentinianIIdied(possiblyhangedhimself)inhispalaceinViena,southeastofGaul.
Mainentry:TheodosiusDynasty
In393,TheodosiusIdeclaredChristianitythestatereligion,andopposedallpaganismandheresy,closedpolytheistictemples,andbuiltanewChristianchurch.HebelievedthattheancientOlympicsviolatedChristiandoctrinesandwasanactivityofpagans,soheannouncedtheabolitionoftheancientOlympics.In394,TheodosiusIdefeatedEugenius,theusurperinthewest,andbecamethesoleruleroftheempire.ThiswasalsothelastreunificationoftheRomanEmpireaftermanydivisionsofeastandwest.Thisyear,thepopulationunderRomanrulemaybearound56million.In395,TheodosiusIdiedinMilan.Heonceagaindividedtheempireintotwoparts,theeastparttotheeldestsonArcadius,andthewestparttotheyoungestsonHornorius.
ThedisintegrationandcollapseoftheWesternRomanEmpire
Mainentry:TheWesternRomanEmpiresub>
Afterthe5thcentury,thewaveofEuropeanmigrationreachedapeak.Alaric,theleaderoftheVisigoths,constantlyinvadedtheRomanEmpireunderthestrongpressureoftheHuns,anomadicnationinNortheastAsia.Inthewinterof405,theAlliedforcesofAlaricandtheHunsbrokethroughtheimperialRhineline.Romehadnoeffectiveresistance,whichwasequivalenttogivingupmostofGaul.In407,theGeneralConstantineIIIstationedinBritainrebelled.TheWesternRomanEmperorHonoriustriedtogetAlarictoattackConstantineIII.Alaricdemanded4,000poundsofgoldasaprice.Uthagreed.Later,asHornoriusbrokehispromise,AlaricandtheHunsinvadedItaly,andHornoriusfledfromMilantoRavenna.AlaricwentsouthandsurroundedRome.
Atthistime,famineandplaguebrokeoutinRome.TheSenatehadtomakepeacewithAlaricandhandedover5,000poundsofgold,30,000poundsofsilver,andmanyvaluablesandtreasures.In409,thecoalitionofAlaricandtheHunssurroundedRomeforthesecondtimeanderectedapuppetemperor,andHornorius,whowashuddledinRavenna,retainedthethronewiththesupportoftheEasternRomanEmpire.In410,AlaricandtheHunssurroundedRomeforthethirdtime,andeventuallydefeatedit.Thecoalitionforceslootedthecityforthreedaysandreturnedwithgreatresults,whileRomesufferedadevastatingblow.Inthesameyear,alltheRomanlegionsstationedinBritainwithdrew,announcingtheendofRomanruleoverBritain.
Inthefollowingtenyears,theco-emperorConstantiusIIIofHonoriusbecamethemilitaryheadoftheempire,andtheempirewasstableforaperiodoftime.In418,theVisigothickingdomwasestablishedintheprovinceofAquitaineandthecapitalToulouse.ThiswasthefirstbarbariankingdomestablishedintheWesternRomanEmpire.In423,Honoriusdied,ValentinianIIIascendedthethrone,andhismotherGalaPlacidiawastheregent.
In439,theKingdomofVandal-AranwasestablishedinNorthAfrica,thecapitalofCarthage,andestablisheditsownnavy,constantlyattackingtheWesternRomanEmpirefromthesea.In451,theHungarianleaderAttilaledaninvasion,andwasrepelledbythefamousempire,Aetius,theVisigothicKingdomandotherGermans.Sincethen,Aetiushasrepeatedlyrepelledthebarbarianattacks.In454,PetroniusMaximuscolludedwithministerstofalselyaccuseAetiusofrebellion,andValentinianIIIbelievedittobetrueandmurderedAetiusinthepalace.Later,MaximuscolludedwithsoldierstomurderValentinianIIIandproclaimedhimselfemperor.In455,theleaderoftheVandals,Geselik,andtheHunstookadvantageofthechaostoinvadeRome.Maximuswaskilledandthecitywaslootedagain.
Sofar,theWesternRomanEmpirehasbeenunabletomaintain,onlylingering.Theeightlateremperorswereallpuppets,andtherealpowerwasinthehandsofbarbaricgenerals.Duringthe16yearsofLichmel’srule,Avitus,Mayorian,andLibiusSeveruswereabolished,andEmperorAntemius,whohadbeenerectedbytheEasternEmperor,waskilled,andAulibriuswasestablishedseparately.WhenGondobadwasinpower,hehelpedLiserius.In475,OrestmadehissonRomulusIIemperor.In476,thebarbariangeneralOdoacrebelledagainstOrest,deposedRomulusAugustus,declaredallegiancetotheEasternRomanEmperorZeno,andtransferredthepoweroftheWesternRomanEmpiretotheEasternRomanEmpire.Atthispoint,theWestThefalloftheRomanEmpire.ThedemiseoftheWesternRomanEmpiremarkedthecollapseofslaveryinWesternEurope,andthehistoryofWesternEuropehassinceopenedanewpage.
Germanickingdoms
AfterthedemiseoftheWesternRomanEmpire,theinvadingGermansestablishedsuccessivelyontheterritoryoftheWesternRomanEmpireTenkingdoms.In489,Theodoric,theleaderoftheOstrogoths,withthesupportoftheEasternRomanEmperorZeno,crossedtheAlpsandinvadedtheApennines.In493,TheodoricoccupiedRavenna,killedOdoac,establishedtheEasternGothicKingdom,andbecamethegovernoroftheEasternRomanEmpireinItaly.Infact,EasternRomedidnothavetheabilitytorestrainTheodoric.Throughaseriesofmarriages,TheodoricformedallianceswithotherGermanickingdoms.In534,theEasternRomanemperorJustinianIdestroyedtheVandalKingdom.In553,theEasternGothicKingdomwasdestroyed.In568,theLombardscrossedtheAlpsfromthenorth,invadedtheApenninesandestablishedtheLombardKingdom.In572,Paviawasestablishedasthecapital.EasternRomeonlyretainedRavennaandsomefragmentedterritoriesinsouth-centralItaly.In751,RavennawasoccupiedbytheLombards.In774,KingCharlestheGreatoftheFrankishKingdomdestroyedtheLombardKingdom.
Countryname | Englishname | Location |
|---|---|---|
EasternGothicKingdom | Ostrogoth | Pannonia、Mercia,thenenterItaly |
FrankKingdom | Frank | now | b>FranceNorthern,GermanyWestern,post-expansion
TheKingdomofBurgundy | Bourgogne | TodayFranceSoutheast |
VisigothKingdom | Visigoth | IberianPeninsulaMostoftoday'ssouthwesternFrance |
SovietHuiKingdom | SuebiorSuevi | IberiaNorthwestofthepeninsula |
TheKingdomofVandal-Aran | Vandals-Alan | nowTunisiaMost,AlgeriaandLibyapartofthecoastalland area,Initsheyday,MediterraneanSeaSomeislands |
KingdomofLombard(Afterthemid-6thcentury) | Lombardy | TodayAustria,NorthernItaly |
Anglo-SaxonKingdoms | Anglo-Saxon | BritainSouthwestern |
HruliKingdom | Heruli | Austriatoday |
AlemanniKingdom | Alamanni,AllemanniorAlemanni | TodaySwitzerland,SouthernGermany |
EmpireSuccession
EasternRomanEmpire(ByzantineEmpireb>)
AfterthedemiseoftheWesternRomanEmpire,theEasternRomanEmpirebecametheactualsuccessoroftheRomanEmpire.In1453,Constantinople,thecapitaloftheEasternRomanEmpire,wascapturedbytheOttomanSultanMuhammadII.In1460,theterritoryoftheEasternRomanEmpireinMoriawasoccupiedbytheOttomanEmpire.In1461,theOttomanEmpiredestroyedtheTrabzonEmpire.Atthispoint,theEasternRomanEmpirewithdrewfromthestageofhistoryforever.
CharlemagneEmpire
In800,PopeLeoIIIcrownedCharlemagne,KingoftheCarolingiandynastyoftheFrankishKingdom,asthe"EmperoroftheRomans"inRome,andrecognizedtheCharlemagneEmpireasthesuccessoroftheRomanEmpire.In843,thethreesonsofCharlemagneandLouisthePioussignedtheTreatyofVerdun,whichsplittheempireintothreeparts.
HolyRomanEmpire
TheHolyRomanEmpireandtheRomanEmpireareactuallynotdirectandlegalRelationship.In962,KingOttoIoftheEastFrankishKingdomwascrownedtheEmperoroftheRomanEmpirebyPopeJohnXIIinRome,andtheHolyRomanEmpirerecognizedtheHolyRomanEmpireasthesuccessoroftheWesternRomanEmpire.Later,theEasternRomanEmpirealsorecognizeditsstatus.Until1806,theFrenchemperorNapoleonIorderedFranzIIoftheHabsburgdynastytoabandonthetitleofHolyRomanEmperoronAugust6,andonlyretainthetitleofAustrianEmperor.TheHolyRomanEmpirewasdisintegratedintotheAustrianEmpire,theRhineConfederation,etc.,proclaimingdisintegration.
RussianEmpire
In1472,IvanIIIoftheGrandDuchyofMoscowmarriedEastRomeSophia,thenieceofConstantineXI,thelastemperoroftheempire,declaredthatshehadinheritedtheEasternRomanorthodoxyandintroducedthestatereligionofEasternRomeintohercountry.Tothisday,RussiaisstillthecenteroftheglobalOrthodoxChurch.
In1547,GrandDukeIvanIVwascrownedbytheOrthodoxArchbishopMakkariandproclaimedtheemperor,becomingRussia'sfirsttsar.Theword"Czar"comesfromtheLatin"Caesar",implyingitspureblood.Atthesametime,inordertoalwaysremindtheworldthattheyarethelegalheirsoftheEasternRomanEmpire,theycallthemselvesthe"ThirdRome"andaddthedouble-headedeaglelogousedbyEasternRometothenationalemblem.
In1721,CzarPeterIofRussiaacceptedthetitleof"EmperorofAllRussia"andcalledhimself"Emperor".TsaristRussiawasrenamedtheRussianEmpireuntilthefalloftheRevolutioninFebruary1917.
Provinces
ThefollowingtableliststheprovincesoftheRomanEmpirearound120yearsago.
Provincesaredividedintothreecategories:SenateProvince(managedbytheSenate),EmperorProvince(managedbytheEmperor),andLocalProvince(managedbythelocalfinanceofficerorgovernor).
Chinesename | Latinname | Establishmentyear | Classification | Generalarea |
|---|---|---|---|---|
AchaeaProvince | Achaea | Theprevious146years | TheSenateProvince | SouthernGreece,Peloponneseregion |
Egyptprovinces | Aegyptus | Thefirst30years | Localprovinces | Egypt |
AfricaProvince | Africa | Theprevious146years | TheSenateProvinces | Tunisia |
AlpesCottiae | AlpesCottiae | Theprevious14years | Localprovinces | TheborderbetweenItalyandFrance |
CoastalAlpes | AlpesMaritimae | Theprevious14years | Localprovinces | ItalyandFranceborder,neartheMediterraneanSea |
AlpesPoenninae | AlpesPoenninae | Theprevious14years | Localprovinces | Switzerland-Franceborder |
PetraProvinceofArabia | ArabiaPetraea | 105years | EmperorProvince | Jordan,andsouthernSyria |
AsianProvince | Asia | Thefirst129years | TheSenateProvince | EasternAsiaMinor |
LowerArmeniaProvince | ArmeniaInferior | 114years | b>EmperorProvince | EastCoastoftheBlackSea |
AssyriaProvince | Assyria | 116years | EmperorProvince | NorthernIraq |
BittiNiagaraProvince | Bithynia | Theprevious74years | TheEmperor'sProvince | NorthwestAsiaMinorb> |
BritishProvince | Britannia | 43years | Emperor'sProvince | b>Will,England |
CappadociaProvince | Cappadocia | 17years | EmperorProvince | EasternAsiaMinor |
CiliciaProvince | Cilicia | Thefirst64years | TheEmperor'sProvince | SouthernAsiaMinor |
KomageniProvince | Commagene | 72years | EmperorProvince | SoutheastAsiaMinor |
CordueneProvince | Corduene | Theprevious66years | TheEmperor'sProvince | KurdishRegion |
TheprovincesofCorsicaandSardinia | CorsicaetSardinia | Thefirst231years | LocalProvinces | Corsica,Sardinia |
CreteandCyrenaicaprovinces | CretaetCyrenaica | First30years | TheSenateProvince | Crete,northeasternLibya |
ProvinceofCyprus | Cyprus | Theprevious58years | TheSenateProvince | Cyprus |
DaciaProvince | Dacia | 105years | EmperorProvince | Romania |
DalmatiaProvince | Dalmatia | Previous32years | EmperorProvince | SouthernCroatia |
EpirusProvince | Epirus | Thefirst146years | Localprovinces | WesternGreece |
GalatianProvince | Galatia | first25years | EmperorProvince | Anatolia |
GalliaAquitania | GalliaAquitania | 87yearsago | EmperorProvince | CentralandSoutheasternFrance |
BelgiumGaulProvince | GalliaBelgica | Top57Year | TheEmperor'sProvince | Belgium |
LyonGaulProvince | GalliaLugdunensis | Theprevious87years | EmperorProvince | CentralandNorthernFrance |
GalliaNarbonensis | GalliaNarbonensis | Theprevious118years | SeniorYuanProvince | SouthofFrance |
LowerGermania | GermaniaInferior | 90years | EmperorProvince | Netherlands |
UpperGermania | GermaniaSuperior | 90years | EmperorProvince | b>TheborderofFrance,GermanyandSwitzerland |
SpainProvinceofBetica | HispaniaBaetica | 14years | SeniorSenateProvince | SouthofSpain |
SpainProvinceofLusitania | HispaniaLusitania | 14years | EmperorProvince | Portugal |
SpainProvinceofTarragona | HispaniaTarraconensis | Previous27years | EmperorProvince | MostofSpain |
Italy | Italia | / | Native | Italy |
JewishProvince | Iudaea | Thefirst63years | TheEmperor'sProvince | Israel |
LikeniaProvince | Lycaonia | Thefirst64years | EmperorProvince | Anatolia |
LyciaProvince | Lycia | 43years | SeniorYuanProvince | SouthernAsiaMinor |
MacedoniaProvince | Macedonia | Theprevious146years | ProvinceofSenateHospital | Macedonia |
CaesareaProvinceofMauritania | MauretaniaCaesariensisp> | 40years | LocalProvinces | NorthwestAlgeriaMinistry |
TingitanaMauritania | MauretaniaTingitana | 40years | Localprovinces | NorthernMorocco |
MisiaProvince | Moesia | Thefirst29years | TheEmperor'sProvince | TheSouthBankoftheDanube |
NorrickProvince | Noricum | Previous16years | EmperorProvince | Austria |
NumidiaProvince | Numidia | Thefirst25years | TheEmperor'sProvince | NortheastCoastofAlgeria |
OsloneProvince | Osroene | 116years | Localprovinces | NorthernSyria |
PannoniaProvince | Pannonia | 20years? | EmperorProvince | Hungary |
PamphyliaProvince | Pamphylia | Thefirst25years | Emperor'sProvince | b>SouthwestAsiaMinor |
ThisAllprovinces | Pontus | Thefirst64years | EmperorProvince | NorthernAsiaMinor |
RhetiaProvince | Raetia | 15years | TheEmperor'sProvince | b>MostofSwitzerland |
ProvinceofSicily | Sicilia | First241years | TheSenateProvince | Sicily |
SofinaProvince | Sophene | Theprevious89years | TheEmperor'sProvince | Armenia |
ProvincesofSyria | Syria | Thefirst64years | EmperorProvince | MostofSyria |
TauricaProvince | Taurica | 1stcentury | TheEmperor'sProvince | NorthShoreoftheBlackSea |
ThraceProvince | Thrace | 46years | EmperorProvince | NorthernGreece,SouthernBulgaria |
Culture
Language
LatinistheRomanEmpireTheofficiallanguageisalsothelocallanguageoftheItalianregion.Duringtheimperialperiod,Latinwasdividedintoatleasttwocategories:classicalLatinandpopularLatin.ClassicalLatinisusedasawrittenlanguage,whilepopularLatinisgenerallyusedasaspokenlanguage.ClassicalLatinisverystableandhasnotchangedfromtheimperialperiodtotheMiddleAges.PopularLatinhasdialectsinallpartsoftheempire,withmanychanges,graduallyevolvingintoRomancelanguages.
AlthoughLatinistheofficiallanguageoftheempire,Greekisoneofthemainlanguagesoftheempire,especiallyintheeasternprovincesoftheempire.EveninRome,Greekhasbecomethelanguageofeducationandtheupperclasslanguage.Greekisacommonlyusedlanguageinthefieldsofreligion(Christianity),science,andart.
Inthe4thcentury,Greekgraduallylostpowerinthewesternpartoftheempire,andLatinprevailed.Intheearly5thcentury,thepublicationofthestandardLatintranslationoftheBiblereflectedthissituation.TheWesternRomanEmpirealsograduallybegantorejectpeoplewhocouldspeakGreek.Thisresultedinaculturalsplitbetweentheeasternandwesternpartsoftheempire.GreekhasbeentheofficiallanguageoftheEasternRomanEmpiresince610.
OtherlanguagessuchasAramaic,Coptic,Armenian,etc.arealsospokenintheempire.
NaturalScience
PlinytheElder(23-79),authorof37volumesof"NaturalHistory",whichcoversallaspectsofscienceatthattime,involvingastronomy,geography,Biology,medicine,agriculture,minerals,etc."NaturalHistory"waswrittenonthebasisofPlinytheElder'smanyyearsofreadingandreadingnotes.Thebookisnotclassifiedandrathermessy.Thegreatestachievementof"NaturalHistory"isthatitrecordsmorethan20,000variousthingsandextractsvariousdocuments.Therearemorethan2,000kinds,sothatmanypreciousscientificrecordsofthetimehavebeenpasseddown.Itisanextremelyrareencyclopediaworkinancienttimes.
Agriculture
TheSpanishColumella,authorof"AgriculturalTheory"in12volumes,talksaboutagriculturalandanimalhusbandrytechnologyandmanagementaswellassocialeconomy.ThisbookThebookhadagreatinfluenceonthemedievalmanor.
Medicine
ThefamousdoctorCelsusintheperiodofEmperorTiberius(30-45yearsago),authorof"MedicalEncyclopedia"8volumesAmongthem,volumes7-8recordmanyoperations,andtheyaredescribedindetail.Galen(129-199),afamousdoctorintheperiodofEmperorMarcoAurelius,servedasanimperialphysicianformanyyearsandwrotequiteafew.Galenusedmonkeyanatomytoinferthestructureofthehumanbody,creatingaprecedentinanatomy.Galenalsoputforwardthetheoryof"threeauras",namely"vitalityaura","naturalaura"and"soulaura"toexplainthephysiologicalmechanismofthehumanbody.Galen'spharmacybookintroducedvariousmedicinalmaterials,about820species,includinganimals,plantsandminerals.Galen’stheorywasregardedasaclassicbytheWestintheMiddleAgesandbecamethemainreferencematerialforAvicennauntilHarveyproposedthetheoryofbloodcirculationinthe17thcentury.
Astronomy
TheEgyptianastronomerPtolemy(85-168),authorof13volumesof"Astronomy".ThebookcollectsthemasterpiecesofancientGreco-Romanastronomy.Thebookusesageometricsystemtodescribethemotionofcelestialbodies,andhasastarmapincluding1022stars,whichisextremelycompleteinancienttimes.Inaddition,thebookalsodiscussesthecalculationofthecalendar,thecalculationoftheeclipseofthesunandthemoon,theproductionanduseofastronomicalinstruments,andsoon.However,becausePtolemybelievedinthe"geocentrictheory",inordertomakethistheorystand,hedesignedanextremelycomplexcelestialgeometrysystemtosolvesomeproblemsthatthecalculationsofthegeocentrictheorydidnotmatchthereality,andtheresultsofthecalculationswereroughlysimilartotheactualobservations.BeforeCopernicusproposedthe"heliocentrictheory",Ptolemy'sdoctrinewasdominantinEurope.
Geography
Strabo(64-23yearsago),authorof"Geography"in17volumes.The"knownworld"oftheRomansatthattimeisdescribedindetail,includingallpartsofEurope,WestAsiaandNorthAfrica,involvingthephysicalandhumangeographyofvariousplaces.Thebookalsodiscussestheimpactoftheenvironmentontheeconomiclifeofvariousplacesandthestudyofcities..Beforethegreatdiscoveryofgeography,thisbookwasthemostdetailedgeographyworkintheWest.
Historiography
ThehistorianoftheOctavianperiod,LiWei(59-17yearsago),authorof"HistoryofRomeSincetheFoundingoftheCity"142volumes,36volumescurrentlyinexistence,narratinglegendsRomulusinChinaestablishedthecityofRometo9yearsofhistory.ItisthefirstgeneralhistoryofWesternhistoriography.
Taxito(55-120years),authorof12volumesof"History",mainlynarratingthehistoryoftheFlaviandynasty(69-96).Tacitusispoliticallyinclinedtorepublicans,andisextremelyopposedtotheemperorandauthoritarianrule.Inaddition,thereare"BiographyofAgulikola","Germania","Orator'sDialogue"and"Chronicle"andotherworkshandeddown,allofwhichhaveextremelyhighhistoricalandliteraryvalue.
Suvitonius(approximately69-122yearslater),whoselifeinformationismainlyderivedfromPlinytheYounger’s"Letters",authorof"TheTwelveEmperorsofRome",withbiographyTheformdescribesthetwelvemonarchsatthebeginningoftheRomanEmpire,focusingonportrayinganecdotes,butthehistoriographylacksseriousness.
Appian(about95-about165),authorof"HistoryofRome".ThetopbeganintheeraofRomankings,andthebottomendedintheperiodofEmperorTrajanatthebeginningofthe2ndcentury,coveringnearly900yearsofhistory.
ArianofNicomedea,authorof"Alexander'sExpedition",isthemostdetailedbiographyofAlexandertheGreatinexistence.
AmianusMarcelinus(330-395),Antiochian,authorof"HistoryoftheLateRomanEmpire",narratingthebeginningoftheAntoniandynastyin1996to378ThehistoryofEmperorValence'sdefeatin1year.Thelast18volumesofthebook,namelyvolumes14-31,recordthehistoryoftheRomanEmpirefrom354to378.Thefirst13volumesarebasicallyexcerptsfromotherexistinghistoricalbooks;thenext18volumesaremainlythehistoryexperiencedbytheauthorhimself,sothecontentisdetailedandthewritingisvivid.Itisthemostimportantprimitivehistoricalbookaboutthelateclassicaleraandtheearlynationalmigration.Becausetheauthorisanexperiencedprofessionalmilitaryofficer,thedescriptionofthewarinthebookisparticularlyoutstanding,anditisrecognizedasthebestclassicalmilitaryhistoryworksinceCaesar.
ScienceofLaw
Thesecond-centuryjuristGayo,authorofTheLadderofLaw.
Inthethirdcentury,juristscompiledtheGregorianCodeandtheHermogonianCode,whichpreservedalargenumberofedictsanddecreesoftheemperor.Romanlawhasaprofoundimpactontheformulationoflawsinmodernsociety.Thelawsofcivillawcountries,suchasdebtlawandpropertylaw,allhavetheshadowofRomanlaw.
Architecture
Theamphitheater(alsoknownastheColosseumandColosseum),builtintheFlavianDynasty,hasthreearchesandcanholdtensofthousandsPeoplearetheplacewheregladiatorialperformancesareheld.Complexundergroundfacilitiesarebuiltforgladiatorialperformances,andwatercanevenbeusedfornavalbattleperformances.
TheArcdeTriomphealsooriginatedinRomeandwasbuiltfortheemperor’striumph.TherearethreetriumphalarchesintheancientcityofRome.OnewasbuiltbyTitusin71,onewasbuiltbySeverusin203,andtheotherwasbuiltbyConstantinetheGreatin315,withexquisitereliefs.
Literature
Reference:AncientRomanLiterature
Virgil,apoetintheOctavianperiod(70yearsago-19yearsago),wrote10earlyworks"Pastoral",mainlysingingpastorallife.Inthefirst29years,Virgilpublished4volumesof"IdyllicPoems"(alsotranslated"AgriculturalPoems"),whichmainlytalkedaboutagriculturalproductionandalsosangtheidyllicscenery.Thefirstvolumeisaboutgrowingcrops,thesecondvolumeisaboutgrowingfruittrees,thethirdvolumeisaboutraisinglivestock,andthefourthvolumeisaboutraisingbees.Inhislateryears,hewrotetheepic"Aeneas"(alsotranslatedas"Iniat")in12volumes,narratingthestoryoftheRomanmythologicalheroAeneaswhoescapedfromTroyandcametoItalyandbecameking.
ThepoetHorace,authorof"Anthem",singsthepraisesofOctavian.
Ovid(43-14yearsago),famousforlovepoems,becamefamousas"LoveSongs"with49poemsin3volumes.Itisacollectionoflovepoems.Heisalsotheauthorof21"LadiesLetters",whichisaloveletterwrittenbyOvidbasedonthemythologyoftheheroineinthelovestory.Ovid's"Kamasutra"wassentencedtoexileintheBlackSearegionbecauseitviolatedOctavian'spolicyof"clarifyingcustoms".Ovid'srepresentative,asalongpoem"TheMetamorphosis,"waswrittenapproximatelyduringtheexileperiod.Itrewrittenmanymythsandlegends.Theplotischangeable,theimaginationispeculiar,anditisbetterthanpsychologicaldescription.
Philosophy
TheNeo-Stoicphilosophyprevailedduringtheimperialperiod.ThemainphilosophersareSenecaandEmperorMarcoAurelius,whopreachedfatalismandasceticism.
Seneca(from4to65yearsago),EmperorNero’steacher,believedthatthepurposeofphilosophywastoleadpeopletovirtueandadvocatedrestrainingdesireandpursuingmorality.However,Senecahimselfdidnotagreewithwhathesaidandmadeafortune.EmperorMarcoOlekepta"MeditationRecord",advocatingpatienceandrestraint.
Afterthecrisisofthethirdcentury,Neo-Platonismconcentratedonthemysticismofthetime.RepresentativesincludePlotinusandProklo.TocallGodtheoriginoftheworldisanabsolutelyinfiniteexistenceandcannotbeknown;andthehumanbodyistheoriginofsin,andhumansmustgetridofthefleshinordertocommunicatewithGodandobtainthetruth.Thisisthedoctrineof"theunityofmanandgod".
InChristianity,aninitialtheologycalled"thetheologyofthegodfather"appeared,andtherepresentativefigureisSt.Augustine.SaintAugustinewrote"OntheCityofGod","Confessions",etc.,incorporatingNeo-PlatonismintotheChristiandoctrine.Thepatristicphilosophyusesphilosophytodemonstratemanybasicdoctrinestoday,includingtheism,Trinitarianism,creationism,originalsintheory,redemptiontheory,heavenlytheory,andsoon.
Diplomacy
TheEurasiancontinentduringtheRomanEmpire(2photos)
Atthebeginning,Romeonlytradedanddiplomacywithsomesmallneighboringcountries,Therangeissmall.From138BCto119BC,EmperorWuoftheHanDynastysentZhangQiantotheWesternRegionstwiceandindirectlystartedtradewithRomethroughtheSilkRoad;BanchaointheEasternHanDynastydispatchedGanYingtoDaqin,butonlyreachedthePersianGulfandreturnedwithoutsuccess;Accordingtothe"BookoftheLaterHanDynasty",in166,KingAnDun(ieRomanEmperorMarcoAurelius)firstsentenvoystoLuoyang,thecapitalofHanDynasty,andpresentedgiftssuchasivoryandrhinohornfromEmperorHuanoftheHanDynasty(notconfirmed,itmaybeRomanBymerchants).Thetwosidesalsotransferredtheirownproductsandtechnologiestoeachother,whichpromotedtheexchangeofmaterialandspiritualcivilizationsbetweentheEastandtheWest,whichgreatlybenefitedthepeopleoftheEastandtheWest.TheHanDynastyusedsilk,tea,andporcelaininexchangeforgems,spices,medicinalmaterials,andglasswarefromRest,Greece,Rome,andMacedonia.RomanmerchantsalsotradedfamousproductssuchasChinesesilkinexchangeforOrientalgems,jadeite,kapok,andIndianrhinohornsandivory.Military
Reference:RomanLegion
Inthefirst29years,Octaviancarriedoutmilitaryreformsandestablishedastandingarmy.
ThemaintypesofarmsoftheRomanarmyareheavyinfantryandcavalry.TheRomanheavyinfantrywasmainlyequippedwithlances,daggers,largeshields,andarmor.Armorisgenerallymadeofcoppermetalsheetandleather,andtherearealsochainarmorandscalearmorinthelaterperiod.Inadditiontobasicequipment,thecavalryisalsoequippedwithabeautifullycraftedcopperhelmet.TheearlymetalequipmentoftheRomanarmywasgenerallymadeofbronze.
ThebasicunitoftheRomanarmyistheLegion,withauxiliarytroopsandmercenaries.Thereisacenturionunderthelegion,andthecaptainofthecenturioniscalledthecenturion.TheRomanarmyhadstrictdisciplineandrequiredsubordinatestoobeytheirsuperiorsabsolutely.Therearealsovariouspenaltiesinthearmy,andtheescapingarmywillbesubjecttothe"elevensmashingandkillinglaw,"thatis,onepersonoutoftenwillbeexecuted.InthelaterperiodoftheRomanEmpire,thearmywasmainlycomposedofbarbarians,withdepravedmilitarydisciplineandlowcombateffectiveness.
Economy
Agriculture
IntheeconomyoftheRomanEmpire,agriculturewasthemostimportant.Themainfoodcropoftheempirewaswheat,whichwasgrownthroughouttheempire,especiallytheeasternprovinces.Themaincashcropsoftheempireareolivesandgrapes,andtheMediterraneanregionisthemaincultivationareaforgrapesandolives.Theempireimportedalargeamountoffood,wine,andoilfromtheEasternProvinceeveryyear,andtheEasternProvincewasalsoanimportantsourceofimperialtaxes.Theempire’sagriculturalproductionefficiencywasnothigh,andthesecond-zonecroprotationwascommon,andtheuseofswing-rodstepplowsforarablelandwasalsomorecommonthantheuseofsplitplows.Theagriculturalindustryoftheempireconsistedmainlyoflarge-scalemanors,usingslavesorsubordinateagriculturallabor(whichflourishedafterthe3rdcentury),andsmallfarmers(self-cultivatingfarmers)almostdisappeared.Inthelaterperiodoftheempire,theseestatesseverelyaffectedthetaxesoftheempire.
Handicraft
ThecurrencyoftheRomanEmpire(22photos)
InthehandicraftindustryoftheRomanEmpire,potterymakingwasthemostimportant,becauseofthefoodandwinePotterymustbeusedforthetransportationofcommoditiessuchasoilandoil.TheItalianpotterycenterismainlyinPozzuoli.ThepotteryindustryinGaulisalsoverycompetitive,andtheGaulsalsoinventedthedouble-earedurn.TheminingindustryinSpainisverydevelopedandismonopolizedbythestate.Inthetextileindustry,Padua'swoolencloth,Spanishwoolcloak,andGaul'scoatwithahoodareallwell-known.Spainalsohasahandicraftindustryformakingfishsauce,whichisaseasoningmadefromfish.Thelineageoftheemperors
TheemperorsoftheRomanEmpire(27-284yearsago)(54photos)
Theheadsystem
JuliaClaudiusdynasty
Reigning | Englishname p> | Chinesename | Remarks |
|---|---|---|---|
Theprevious27-14years | Augustus | Octavian | |
14-37years | Tiberius | Tiberius | |
37-41years | Caligula | Caligula | OriginalnameGaiusCaesar,Caligulaisthenickname,whichmeans"littleboots" BeginthehabitoftheRomanemperortoproclaimhimselfagod Assassinated |
41-54years | Claudius | Claudius | MaybethequeenLittleAgripinaPoisonedtodeath |
54-68years | Nero | Nero | Suicide |
TheFourEmperorsCivilWar(TheYearoftheFourEmperors)
Present | Englishname | Chinesename | Remarks |
|---|---|---|---|
68-69 | Galba | Galba | MurderedbyOtto |
69years | Otho | Otho | defeated,suicide |
69years | Vitellius | Vitellius | Destroyedandexecuted |
FlaviDynasty
InPlace | Englishname | 中文名 | 备注 |
|---|---|---|---|
69年－79年 | Vespasian | 韦帕芗 | |
79年－81年 | Titus | 提图斯 | 79年，维苏威火山爆发，埋没庞贝城 |
81年－96年 | Domitian | 图密善 | 被刺杀 |
安敦尼王朝
在位 | 英文名 | 中文名 | 备注 |
|---|---|---|---|
96年－98年 | Nerva | 涅尔瓦 | |
98年－117年 | Trajan | 图拉真 | |
117年－138年 | Hadrian | 哈德良 | |
138年－161年 | AntoninusPius | 安敦尼·庇护 | |
161年－180年 | MarcusAurelius | 马可·奥勒留 | 与维鲁斯为共治皇帝 |
161年－169年 | LuciusVerus | 路奇乌斯·维鲁斯 | 与马可·奥勒留为共治皇帝 |
175年 | AvidiusCassius | 阿维狄乌斯·卡西乌斯 | 篡位者，统治埃及和叙利亚 被一位百夫长所杀 |
177年－180年 | Commodus | 康茂德 | 与马可·奥勒留为共治皇帝 |
180年－192年 | 中毒后被一摔跤手掐死 |
193年内乱期
在位 | 英文名 | 中文名 | 备注 |
|---|---|---|---|
193年 | Pertinax | 佩蒂纳克斯 | 被士兵杀死 |
193年 | DidiusJulianus | 尤利安努斯 | 被近卫军杀死 |
塞维鲁王朝
在位 | 英文名 | 中文名 | 备注 |
|---|---|---|---|
193年－211年 | SeptimiusSeverus | 塞维鲁 | |
193年－194年/195年 | PescenniusNiger | 奈哲尔 | 叙利亚的争位者 |
193年/195年－197年 | ClodiusAlbinus | 阿尔拜努斯 | 不列颠的争位者 |
198年－217年 | Caracalla | 卡拉卡拉 | 与盖塔为共治皇帝 |
209年－211年 | Geta | 盖塔 | 与卡拉卡拉为共治皇帝 被卡拉卡拉杀死 |
217年－218年 | Macrinus | 马克里努斯 | 与迪亚杜门尼安为共治皇帝 被处死 |
217年－218年 | Diadumenian | 迪亚杜门尼安 | 与马克里努斯为共治皇帝 被处死 |
218年－222年 | Elagabalus | 埃拉伽巴路斯 | 被刺杀 |
222年－235年 | AlexanderSeverus | 亚历山大·塞维鲁 | 被叛乱士兵杀死 |
三世纪危机高潮时的皇帝
在位 | 英文名 | 中文名 | 备注 |
|---|---|---|---|
235年－238年 | MaximinusThrax | 色雷斯人马克西米努斯 | 被军队杀害 |
238年 | GordianI | 戈尔迪安一世 | 与戈尔迪安二世为共治皇帝 自杀 |
238年 | GordianII | 戈尔迪安二世 | 与戈尔迪安一世为共治皇帝 阵亡 |
238年 | PupienusMaximus | 普皮恩努斯 | 与巴尔比努斯为共治皇帝 被近卫军杀死 |
238年 | Balbinus | 巴尔比努斯 | 与普皮努斯为共治皇帝 被近卫军杀死 |
238年－244年 | GordianIII | 戈尔迪安三世 | 被杀 |
240年 | Sabinianus | 萨宾尼亚努斯 | 自立为帝 战败 |
244年－249年 | PhiliptheArab | 阿拉伯人菲利普 | 被德基乌斯杀死 |
248年 | Pacatianus | 帕卡提亚努斯 | 自立为帝 被士兵杀死 |
248年 | Iotapianus | 伊奥塔皮亚努斯 | 争位者 |
248年 | Silbannacus | 希尔班纳库斯 | 篡位者 |
249年－251年 | Decius | 德基乌斯 | 阵亡 |
249年－252年 | Priscus | 普里斯库斯 | 在东部自立为帝 |
250年 | Licinianus | 李锡尼亚努斯 | 争位者 |
251年 | HerenniusEtruscus | 伊特鲁里亚的赫伦尼乌斯 | 阵亡 |
251年 | Hostilian | 霍斯蒂利安 | 与加卢斯为共治皇帝 死于瘟疫 |
251年－253年 | Gallus | 加卢斯 | 被士兵杀死 |
251年－253年 | Volusianus | 沃鲁西安努斯 | 与加卢斯为共治皇帝 被士兵杀死 |
253年 | Aemilianus | 埃米利安努斯 | 被士兵杀死 |
253年－260年 | Valerian | 瓦勒良 | 与加里恩努斯为共治皇帝 出征波斯萨珊王朝战败，被俘 |
253年－260年 | Gallienus | 加里恩努斯 | 与瓦勒良为共治皇帝 |
260年－268年 | 被杀 | ||
260年 | Saloninus | 萨洛尼努斯 | 与加里恩努斯为共治皇帝 被杀 |
258年－260年 | Ingenuus | 因格努乌斯 | 自立者 |
260年 | Regalianus | 雷加里安努斯 | 自立者 |
260年－261年 | MacrianusMajor | 大马克里亚努斯 | 自立者 阵亡 |
260年－261年 | MacrianusMinor | 小马克里亚努斯 | 自立者 阵亡 |
260年－261年 | Quietus | 奎伊图斯 | 争位者 |
261年 | MussiusAemilianus | 穆斯乌斯·埃米利安努斯 | 自立者 |
268年 | Aureolus | 奥里奥路斯 | 自立者 向克劳狄二世投降 |
高卢帝国皇帝（260年-274年）(5张)
高卢帝国在位 | 英文名 | 中文名 | 备注 |
|---|---|---|---|
260年－269年 | Postumus | 波斯杜穆斯 | 建立高卢帝国 |
269年 | Laelianus | 莱利阿努斯 | 自立为高卢帝国皇帝 |
269年 | Marius | 马里乌斯 | |
269年－271年 | Victorinus | 维克托利努斯 | |
270年－271年 | Domitianus | 多米提安努斯 | 自立为高卢帝国皇帝 |
271年－274年 | TetricusI | 泰特里库斯一世 | 向奥勒良投降，高卢帝国灭亡 |
273年－274年 | TetricusII | 泰特里库斯二世 | 与泰特里库斯一世为共治皇帝 |
伊利里亚诸帝
在位 | 英文名 | 中文名 | 备注 |
|---|---|---|---|
268年－270年 | ClaudiusII | 克劳狄二世 | 死于瘟疫 |
270年 | Quintillus | 昆提卢斯 | 与奥勒良为共治皇帝 自杀 |
270年－275年 | Aurelian | 奥勒良 | 被近卫军杀死 |
271年 | Septimius | 赛普蒂米乌斯 | 在达尔马提亚自立为帝 被士兵杀死 |
275年－276年 | ClaudiusTacitus | 克劳狄·塔西佗 | 病死或被杀 |
276年 | Florianus | 弗洛里安努斯 | 被杀 |
276年－282年 | Probus | 普罗布斯 | 被士兵杀死 |
280年 | Saturninus | 萨图尼努斯 | 自立为帝 被士兵所杀 |
280年 | Proculus | 普罗库鲁斯 | 争位者 被普罗布斯所杀 |
280年 | Bonosus | 博诺苏斯 | 自立为帝 被普罗布斯击败，自杀 |
282年－283年 | MarcusAureliusCarus | 马可·奥勒留·卡鲁斯 | 死因不明 |
283年－285年 | Carinus | 卡里努斯 | 与努梅里安为共治皇帝 被杀 |
283年－284年 | Numerian | 努梅里安 | 与卡里努斯为共治皇帝 |
罗马帝国皇帝2(29张)
君主制
四帝共治
在位 | 英文名 | 中文名 | 备注 |
|---|---|---|---|
284年－305年 | Diocletian | 戴克里先 | 与马克西米安同为奥古斯都，掌管东部 |
286年－305年 | Maximian | 马克西米安 | 与戴克里先同为奥古斯都，掌管西部 被迫自杀 |
305年－311年 | Galerius | 伽列里乌斯 | 与君士坦提乌斯一世同为恺撒 305年，成为奥古斯都，掌管东部 与塞维鲁斯为共治皇帝 |
305年－306年 | ConstantiusIChlorus | 君士坦提乌斯一世 | 与伽列里乌斯同为恺撒 305年，成为奥古斯都，掌管西部 与伽列里乌斯为共治皇帝 |
306年－307年 | SeverusII | 塞维鲁斯（塞维鲁二世） | 305年，成为恺撒 306年，成为奥古斯都，掌管西部 与伽列里乌斯为共治皇帝 |
306年－312年 | Maxentius | 马克森提乌斯 | 306年，自立为皇帝 被君士坦丁一世打败并废黜 |
308年－324年 | Licinius | 李锡尼 | 308年，成为奥古斯都 324年，被君士坦丁一世打败，被迫退位后被杀 |
308年 | DomitiusAlexander | 多米提乌斯·亚历山大 | 自立为帝 |
310年－313年 | MaximinusDaia | 马克西米努斯·代亚 | 305年，成为恺撒，掌管东部 310年，自立为奥古斯都，与李锡尼分治东部 自杀 |
316年－317年 | ValeriusValens | 瓦莱里乌斯·瓦伦斯 | 与李锡尼为共治皇帝 被君士坦丁一世处死 |
324年 | Martinianus | 马提尼安努斯 | 324年，成为奥古斯都，掌管西部 与李锡尼为共治皇帝 被杀 |
不列颠帝国皇帝（286年-296年）(2张)
不列颠帝国在位 | 英文名 | 中文名 | 备注 |
|---|---|---|---|
286年－293年 | Carausius | 卡劳修斯 | 建立不列颠帝国 被阿勒克图斯所杀 |
293年－296年 | Allectus | 阿勒克图斯 | 被君士坦提乌斯一世击败 |
君士坦丁王朝
在位 | 英文名 | 中文名 | 备注 |
|---|---|---|---|
306年－337年 | ConstantineItheGreat | 君士坦丁一世 | 原为四帝共治中的西帝，后击败其他诸帝，成为帝国唯一的统治者 第一位信仰基督教的皇帝 |
337年－340年 | ConstantineII | 君士坦丁二世 | 君士坦丁一世死后，国分为三，掌管西部 阵亡 |
337年－361年 | ConstantiusII | 君士坦提乌斯二世 | 君士坦丁一世死后，国分为三，掌管东部 |
337年－350年 | Constans | 君士坦斯一世 | 君士坦丁一世死后，国分为三，掌管中部 被马格嫩提乌斯所杀 |
350年－353年 | Magnentius | 马格嫩提乌斯 | 篡位者 自杀 |
350年 | Vetriano | 维特里亚诺 | 自立为帝 |
350年 | Nepotianus | 尼波提亚努斯 | 自立为帝 |
361年－363年 | JuliantheApostate | 背教者尤利安 | 出征波斯萨珊王朝阵亡 最后一位信仰罗马多神教的皇帝 |
363年－364年 | Jovian | 约维安 | 暴死 |
瓦伦蒂尼安王朝
在位 | 英文名 | 中文名 | 备注 |
|---|---|---|---|
364年－375年 | ValentinianI | 瓦伦提尼安一世 | 西帝 与瓦伦斯、格拉提安为共治皇帝 |
364年－375年 | Valens | 瓦伦斯 | 东帝 与瓦伦提尼安一世、格拉提安为共治皇帝 |
375年－378年 | 与格拉提安、瓦伦提尼安二世为共治皇帝 与哥特人作战战败，阵亡 | ||
365年－366年 | Procopius | 普罗科皮乌斯 | 篡位者 被瓦伦斯处死 |
367年－379年 | Gratian | 格拉提安 | 与瓦伦提尼安一世、瓦伦斯、瓦伦提尼安二世为共治皇帝 |
379年－383年 | 与狄奥多西一世、瓦伦提尼安二世为共治皇帝 被叛军所杀 | ||
375年－379年 | ValentinianII | 瓦伦提尼安二世 | 与瓦伦斯、格拉提安为共治皇帝 |
379年－392年 | 与格拉提安、狄奥多西一世为共治皇帝 自杀或被杀 | ||
383年－388年 | MagnusMaximus | 马格努斯·马克西穆斯 | 西部的篡位者 被狄奥多西一世杀死 |
386年－388年 | FlaviusVictor | 弗拉维乌斯·维克托 | 马格努斯·马克西穆斯之子 被狄奥多西一世杀死 |
392年－394年 | Eugenius | 欧根尼乌斯 | 西部的篡位者 阵亡 |
狄奥多西王朝
在位 | 英文名 | 中文名 | 备注 |
|---|---|---|---|
379年－392年 | TheodosiusI | 狄奥多西一世 | 与格拉提安、瓦伦提尼安二世为共治皇帝 |
392年－395年 | 统一帝国 |
西罗马帝国皇帝(16张)
西罗马帝国
在位 | 英文名 | 中文名 | 备注 |
|---|---|---|---|
395年－423年 | Honorius | 霍诺里乌斯 | 与君士坦提乌斯三世为共治皇帝 |
409年－415年 | PriscusAttalus | 普里斯库斯·阿塔卢斯 | 自立为帝 |
407年－411年 | ConstantineIII | 君士坦丁三世 | 争位者 |
409年－411年 | ConstansII | 君士坦斯二世 | 争位者 |
411年－413年 | Jovinus | 约维努斯 | 争位者 |
412年－413年 | Sebastianus | 塞巴斯蒂安努斯 | 争位者 |
421年 | ConstantiusIII | 君士坦提乌斯三世 | 与霍诺里乌斯为共治皇帝 |
423年－425年 | Joannes | 约翰尼斯 | 争位者 |
425年－455年 | ValentinianIII | 瓦伦提尼安三世 | 被杀 |
455年 | PetroniusMaximus | 佩特罗尼乌斯·马克西穆斯 | 被杀 |
455年－456年 | Avitus | 阿维图斯 | 被废 |
457年－461年 | Majorian | 马约里安 | 被废 |
461年－465年 | LibiusSeverus | 利比乌斯·塞维鲁 | 被废 |
467年－472年 | Anthemius | 安特米乌斯 | 被处死 |
472年 | Olybrius | 奥利布里乌斯 | |
473年－474年 | Glycerius | 格利凯里乌斯 | 退位 |
474年－475年 | JuliusNepos | 朱利乌斯·尼波斯 | 退位 |
475年－480年 | 在达尔马提亚为帝 被杀 | ||
475年－476年 | RomulusAugustulus | 罗慕路斯·奥古斯都 | 被蛮族军队首领奥多亚克废黜 |
