Persia

History

Earlycivilization

Mainentry:Eland、Medi

ElandandMedesperiod(2700BC-553BC)ElamandMedesarenotyetcalledPersiabytheGreeks,buttheyarethehistoryofthePersianregionAnindispensablepartofit.

ElamisoneoftheoldestculturesinPersia.Itislocatedinthesouthwesternpartoftoday’sIran.ItwasfoundedontheeastbankoftheTigrisRiverbefore3000BC.TheyhaveaverycloserelationshipwiththeDravidians.Theyareknownfortheirwarypeople.Theywererepeatedlydestroyedandrestoredfrom2700BCto600BC,andwerefinallydestroyedbytheNewAssyrianEmpirein639BC.

Medi(678BCto553BC)wasakingdomcenteredontheancientPersianregion.Itslargestterritoryincludedtheentireterritoryofpresent-dayIranandwesternTurkey.TheMedesbelongedtotheAryansoftheIndo-Europeanlanguagefamily,andtheywerealsothefirstethnicgroupsettledintheIranianhighlands.TheAssyrianEmpireonceinvadedtheIranianplateauandtriedtoconquerit.However,theinvasionofAssyriapromptedthevarioustribesoftheMedestounite,thusformingtheKingdomofMedes.CyrustheGreatrebelledin553BC,andin550BCheoverthrewtheMedes’ruleoverthePersianregion.

AchaemenidDynasty

Mainentry:AchaemenidDynasty

TheAchaemeniddynasty(558BC-330BC),knownasthePersianFirstEmpire.In559BC,CyrustheGreatunifiedtheancientPersiantribesandestablishedtheAchaemeniddynasty.CyrustheGreatdefeatedtheKingdomofMedesthatruledPersiafrom553BCto550BC,makingPersiaapowerfulmonarchy.In547BC,CyrustheGreatinvadedandconqueredLuinwesternAsiaMinor.TheKingdomofDialedtotheriseoftheAchaemeniddynasty.From546to540yearsago,CyrustheGreatinvadedandconqueredParthia,Aria,Bactria,Drangiana,andGedebyforce.Rosia,Alahosia,Marchiana,CentralAsiabetweentheSyrDaryaandAmuDarya(Sogdiana),QianTuoLa,Krasmiaandotherregions.

In539BC,CyrustheGreatinvadedandconqueredBabylon,thecapitaloftheChaldeanEmpireinMesopotamia,andendedtheBabyloniancivilization,makingPersiatheonlycenterofcivilizationinancientWestAsiaatthattime.Unfortunately,in529BC,theywerekilledinabattlebetweentheSyrDaryaintheSyrDaryaValleyinCentralAsiabetweentheSyrDaryaandAmuDarya.WhenCyrusdied,theeasternandnortheasternbordersofthePersianEmpirealreadyincludedBactriaonbothbanksoftheAmuDaryaRiver(Bactria,knownas"Daxia"and"Tocharo"inChinesehistorybooks)andKhwarazim.RuledbyBaldia,thebrotherofCyrus.AfterCyrus'sonCambysescametothethrone,heinheritedhisfather'swillandcontinuedtoexpand.LaterPersianemperorsrepeatedlylaunchedconquestsagainsttheEasternSerbs,pushingtheborderacrosstheAmuDaryaRivertothebanksoftheSyrDarya.ThePersianEmpiredivideditsterritoryinto20counties,andeachcountypaidacertainamountoftributetothecentralgovernmenteveryyear.SevenofthemwereinCentralAsia:forexample,theGandhararegionsouthoftheHinduKushMountainsunderthejurisdictionoftheseventhprovince,The12provincesgovernDaxia,andthe16thprovincegovernsParthia,KhwarazimandSogdian(Sogdiana).ThemosteasternstrongholdofthePersianEmpireisintheFerganaBasininCentralAsia,whichisadjacenttoXinjiang,China.ThePersiansestablishedthecityofCyrusatthewesternendofthebasin.

IntheeraofCambysesII(529BC-522BC),itfinallyconqueredtheancientEgyptiandynastyin525BC.DuringtheperiodofDariusI,theterritoryoftheempirewasunprecedentedlydeveloped.DariussenttroopstotheIndusPlainin521BCandwasbroughtundertheruleoftheAchaemeniddynasty.Tothewest,hesenttroopstotheDanubeDelta,Thrace,theKingdomofMacedonia,andAncientGreece.490years)failedandfailed(theHippocraticWar499BC-449BC).HissonXerxesIlater(480BC)againusedsoldiersagainstGreece,butunfortunatelyhedidnotachievehisfullsuccessintheend.TheAchaemeniddynastyofancientPersiawasthelargestempireintheworldatthattimeandthefirstworldwideempirespanningAsia,EuropeandAfrica.

Hellenisticperiod

Mainentry:MacedonianEmpire、SeleucidEmpire

TheHellenisticPeriod(330BC-141BC1/129BC),asearlyasPhilipII’sMacedonianEmpire,foundedin356BC,beforetheancientGreekcity-stateswerecontinuouslybroughtundertherule,therewasafuturemilitaryinvasionandconquestoftheAchaemeniddynastyofancientPersia.After338BC,theancientGreekcity-statewascompletelyunderitsrule(exceptforSparta).In336BC,50,000troopsunderthecommandofArtasiuswereassembledtocrosstheStraitofHellespoon.TheforcethatinvadedAsiaMinorwaspartoftheterritoryoftheAchaemeniddynastyofancientPersia,butunfortunately,PhilipIIwasquicklyassassinatedathisdaughter’sweddingbanquet.Afterthat,AlexandertheGreatsucceededinassaultingthethroneandsuppressingtherebellion,asalwaysThelandfollowedhisfatherPhilipII’smilitaryinvasionandconquestpolicyoftheancientPersianAchaemeniddynasty.Between334BCand330BC,the50,000armyofAlexandertheGreatintheMacedonianEmpirepassedtheBattleofGranicusandtheSiegeofMiletus.Theninebattles,theSiegeofHalicarnassos,theBattleofIssus,theSiegeofTyre,theSiegeofGaza,theBattleofGaugamela,theBattleofPersiaPass(BattleofPersepolis),TheBattleofSotterRockAfterabattlewithsimilarnumbersofwarringparties,DariusIIIwasassassinatedbyBesusonhiswaytoescape.TheAchaemeniddynastyofAncientPersiawasdestroyed.MostofitsterritorybeforeitbecamepartoftheMacedonianEmpire,extendingasfarastheMiddleKingdom.TheBactriaandIndusriverbasinsinthecentralregionoftheAyaRiver.

TheMacedonianEmpiresoonfellapartafteratotalofeightsuccessorwarsfrom322to301yearsago.OneofthesubordinategeneralsofAlexandertheGreatoftheMacedonianEmpire-SeleucidIfinallyestablishedhimselfin312BCaftertheSuccessorWarandestablishedtheSeleuciddynasty,withSeleuciaandAntiochusasthecenter,andruledtheeasternpartoftheoriginalPersianEmpirearea.Duringthisperiod,IranbecameahubofexchangebetweentheEastandtheWest:TheSilkRoadthusconnectedtheCentralAsia(Sogdiana)betweentheSyrDaryaandtheAmuDaryawithIndia.BuddhismspreadfromtheIndianMauryaDynastyintheSouthAsiansubcontinent.Then,ZoroastrianismwentwesttoinfluenceJudaism.

In238BC,theSeleuciddynastywasinitslatestage.TheParthianEmpireintheeastwasfoundedin238BCbythePanichiefArshasha,amemberoftheallianceofnomadictribesontheeastcoastoftheCaspianSea.AfterKeIcapturedParthiaandacceptedtheParthianlanguage,heestablishedanomadicmilitaryempire,andthencontinuedtoexpanditsterritories.DuringtheperiodofMithridatesIfrom177to138BC,theempirewasTheterritoryhasexpandedtothelargestextent.TheEuphratesRiverfromthewesttoSyriaincludestheentireMesopotamianplain,theAmuDaryaValleytothewestofthePamirsintheeast,Gedrosiainthesoutheast,andthePersianGulfandtheArabianSeainthesouth..AftertheindependenceofDaxia(Bactria)in250BC,theeasternpartoftheSeleuciddynastywasdisturbedbyDaxiaandwassubjecttotheterritorialexpansionoftheParthianMithridatesI.After190BC,thewestFacedwitharmedconquestsbytheRomanRepublic,whichledtoconstantdecline,andfinallylostalltheterritoriesoftheIranianplateauandMesopotamiaduringtheMithridatesIoftheArshakdynasty.Intheend,theSeleuciddynastywascompletelydestroyedbytheRomanRepublicin63BC.

TheParthianEmpire

Mainentry:TheParthianEmpire

TheAssathisDynasty(247BC-226AD),alsoknownastheParthianEmpire,originatedfromToday’snortheasternIraniannomadscalledtheParthiansatthattime,duringtheheydayoftheruleofMitridatiI(177-138BC)includedtoday’seasternAsiaMinor,Armenia,Azerbaijan,Mesopotamia,Syria,theIranianPlateau,Afghanistan,theGreatKhorasansouthoftheAmuDaryaandPakistanwestofthepresent-dayIndusRiverareseparatedfromtheancientRomanEmpirebytheEuphratesRiver.ThecapitalTessifonislocatednearSeleuciainMesopotamia..Warsoftenbrokeoutbetweenthetwoempires,andatthesametime,therewerefrequentwarsbetweentheParthianEmpireandtheKushanEmpireestablishedacenturylater.TheimperialMesopotamiaandthecapitalcityofTaixifengwerecapturedbytheRomanlegionsin116,164-165,and197-198,respectively,andtheirnationalpowerwasexhausted,resultingintheseparatismoftheprincesintheearlythirdcentury.

SasanianPersia

LordEntry:SasanianPersia

In224AD,AldahirI,thesonofalocalgovernoroftheParthianEmpire,brokewiththeempireandfoughttheflagduetotheexpansionoflocalpowerrebel.Aftertwoyearsofwar,theParthianEmpirewasoverthrownandthekingwaskilled.In226,theSassaniddynastywasformallyestablished,andthecapitalTaixiwassealed.SasanPersiaisnamedafterAldahirI’sgrandfather.ThePersianregionhasbeenre-establishedandunifiedsincetheancientPersianAchaemeniddynasty,aworld-wideempire,andisconsideredtobetheSecondPersianEmpire.YilanShahr,aPersianrevivalist,alsofoughtwiththeRomanEmpiremanytimes.In260,hecapturedaRomanemperor,Valerian.However,Mesopotamia,towhichYilanShahrbelonged,anditscapitalontherightbankoftheTigrisRiver,Tessifon,werealsocapturedbyRomantroopsthreetimesin283,297,and361.

YilanShahrisahighlycentralizedmonarchy.Zoroastrianismisthestatereligion.Thepeoplearedividedintofourlevels:priests,soldiers,administrativeofficials,scholars,andcivilians.TheCatholicismofChristianitywasoncepersecuted,whileNestorianismdeveloped.Inaddition,Zoroastrianism(Zoroastrianism)andManichaeism,whichwereborninPersia,alsoflourishedduringthisperiod,andoncerosetonationalideology.

AsaresultofyearsofconquestsagainsttheEasternRomanEmpire,YilanShahrincreasedtaxesonhissubjectsandatthesametimestrengthenedthecontrolofreligion,causingriots.In629and642,twoemperorsAfterbeingassassinatedandbeingattackedbytherisingarmyoftheArabBedouinnomadicempire,theempirefinallycollapsed.

DuringtheWei,JinandSouthernandNorthernDynasties,friendlyexchangesbetweenChinaandPersiawerefrequent.TheBookofWeirecordsthatPersianenvoyscametoChinadozensoftimestomakeappointmentsandbroughtvariousthingstotheemperoroftheNorthernWeiDynasty.Giftsincludetreasures,elephants,acrobaticmagicperformancetroupes,etc.In1970,sixPersianSassanidsilvercoinswereunearthedattheGreatBuddhaTempleinZhangye,Gansu,China.TheempirewasinitiallyattackedbyArabtroopsin632.Afteritsdemisein651,Balus,thesonofthelastemperoroftheSassanids,fledtotheTangdynastyofChinaandaskedTangGaozongtosendtroopstofighttheinvasionoftheArabsandhelpthePersiansrecover.TheDPRKescortedhimbacktopresent-daySistan,Afghanistan,andestablishedthePersianCapitolin661,butitwasdestroyedbytheArabEmpireattheendof663.

Islamizationperiod

Mainentry:ArabEmpire、TheBigFourCaliphate、UmayyadDynasty、AbbasidDynasty

TheSassaniddynasty,whichfellintonationalchaosattheend,wasquicklydefeatedbytheArabempireguidedbytheemergingIslam(Islam'sconquestofPersia),andPersiabecameapartoftheArabempire.Arabicbecametheprevailinglanguage,IslamquicklyreplacedZoroastrianism,ManichaeismandNestorianism,andalargenumberofmosqueswerebuilteverywhere.

750yearslater,theAbbasiddynastyruledtheArabempire,whilethePersiansgainedadominantpositioninthelocalcapital.Duringthisperiod,thePersianculturedevelopedtremendously.AfterHarunRashidandMamun,theAbbasiddynastydeclinedduetothedeclineofmilitarypower,andaseparatistregimewasformed.Duringthisperiod,theTahirdynasty,Safardynasty,Samandynasty,andZiaappearedsuccessivelyonPersianland.TheErdynasty,theAlafidedynasty,theBaiyidynasty,theGhaznaviddynasty,theGuldynasty,theSeljukempire,andtheKhwarazmo.ThearchitectoftheSeljukEmpirebuiltanincredibleFridaymosqueinthecityofIsfahanin1042.ThefamousPersianmathematicianandpoetOmarKhayyám(OmarKhayyám)wasintheSeljukEmpire.Hewrotehiscollectionofpoems"Rubaiyat"(Rubaiyat).

TheSeljukslostcontrolofPersiaattheendofthetwelfthcentury,andwerereplacedbyanotherIranian-speakingempirebuiltbyanotherIranian-speakingnationfromthelowerAmuDaryadeltaoftheAralSea.In1194,ArauddinMahmo,thesultanofKhwarizmo,conqueredtheSeljukEmpire,andthencapturedtheIranianplateau.In1205,ArauddinMahamofinallycompletelyruledPersia,andin1212,healsoconqueredtheGreatKhan.Thedynasty,andthenruledalltheCentralAsiariverarea,in1215,AlaUddinMahamoattackedtheGuldynasty.

MongolianKhanatePeriod

Mainentry:HuaLaziMo、GreaterMongolia、IliKhanate

TheterritoryoftheKhwarazmoinitsheydaystartsfromtheHezhongregionofCentralAsiatotheeastTotheFerganaBasinandGedrosia,Alahosia,Gandhara,thePersianGulfandtheArabianSeainthesouth,andAzerbaijaninthewest,theterritoryatthebeginningof1219wasabout3.6millionsquarekilometersandthetotalpopulationwasabout12million..TheKhwarazmdynastywasgrantedthe"Emir"bytheIslamicCaliphateofBaghdadinMesopotamiaandlegallybelongedtotheIslamicworld.

Fromtheendof1219to1221,Temujin,agreatsweatoftheMongolEmpire,ledanarmyof100,000troopstoinvadeandconquerKhwarizmo,andslaughtered30citiesinKhwarazmo,andlaterIran.TheregionswereruledbytheGreaterMongolia(1206-1259)andthesubsequentYiliKhanate(1256-1335).Later,heservedasthesupremeruleroftheMongolEmpire:Tuolei,Wokuodai,NaimajinTerrygona,Guiyuhan,UgulihaiLost,andthelocalgovernoroftheMongkhanera,ChoerMahan,Baizhu,YelizhiForgoodorbad,undertheruleandguardofthedwarfKorigisandtheOiratAkhunAgha,continuethemilitaryconquestofArmenia,Georgia,AzerbaijanandtheSultanateofRoma,especiallythegrandsonofTemujinHulaguFrom1256to1259,theMulaiyi,Abbasiddynasty,andSyrianAyubdynastyweredestroyedsuccessively,andtheGreatHulaguKhanatewasformallyestablished.In1295,HezanKhan,themonarchoftheGreatHulaguKhanate,finallyconvertedtoIslam.UntiltheGreatHulaguKhanatecollapsedin1355becauseithadnoheirs,PersiawasstillruledbyfivesmallnationsthatsplitfromtheGreatHulaguKhanate.

TheTimuridEmpire

Mainentry:TheTimuridEmpire

to1381In1467,PersiabecamepartoftheTimurianEmpirethatemergedinthemiddleoftheriversofCentralAsia.SoonafterTimur'sdeath,PersiawassuccessivelyruledbytheTurkicdynastyofBlackSheep,whichexistedfrom1375to1468,andtheAriesdynasty,whichexistedfrom1378to1508.From1405to1433,EmperorYongleoftheMingDynastysentZhengHesevenvoyagestotheWesternOceanandarrivedinthecoastalcitiesoftheTimurEmpiremanytimes.ThestonesteleerectedbyZhengHeinSriLankawaswritteninChinese,Tamil,andPersian.ArabicandPersianwerewidelyusedinthesutraeducationofMuslimsintheMingDynasty.

SafavidEmpire

Mainentry:SafavidEmpire

SafavidTheempireisathree-timerevivalempireestablishedbythePersians.ItsfoundingBritishlordIsmailIunifiedPersiaandexpandeditsterritorytopartoftoday’sAzerbaijan,Iraq,andAfghanistan.Thedoctrineof"Immam"isthestatereligionandiscalledtheThirdReichofPersia.TheSafavidEmpireandtheOttomanEmpirecontinuedtowar.In1588,EmperorAbbastookthethrone,movedhiscapitaltoIsfahan,madepeacewiththeTurks,expelledtheUzbeks,andcapturedBahrain,asmallislandinthePersianGulf,fromPortugal,makingPersiathemostimportantculturalcenteroftheIslamicworld.

Europeaninvasion

Mainentry:AfsharDynasty、PraiseGermanDynasty、KaigaDynasty

In1722,PetertheGreatofRussiaandtheOttomanEmpireinvadedSaTheFavviEmpire,andafterwards,brokeoutinPersiaaftertheSunniriotswereforcedtobelieveinShiites,andtheSafavidEmpirefell.LaterPersiawasruledbytheAfsharDynasty,ZandDynasty,andKaijaDynasty(QajarDynasty)establishedbyTurks.

From1779to1925,PersiawasencroachedbytheRussianEmpireinthenorthandtheBritishEmpirebasedinBritishIndiaintheeastundertheruleoftheQajardynasty,andBritainwasseparatedfromitsterritory.BahrainandpartofAfghanistaninthesphereofinfluenceoftheempire,andAzerbaijan,Turkmenistan,andUzbekistaninthepoweroftheRussianempire.ThestrategiccompetitionbetweenBritainandRussiahereiscalledthe"GreatGame".

Modernandmodern

Thismainentry:Pahlavidynasty,Iran

FirstDuringtheSecondWorldWar,theparticipatingAlliedPowers,theRussianEmpire,theBritishEmpire,andtheAlliedPowers,theGermanEmpireandtheOttomanEmpire,foughtintheeasttosnatchPersianoilfields.Afterthewar,northernPersiawascontrolledbythegarrisonoftheBritishEmpire.InDecember1925,RezaKhanlaunchedacourtcouptooverthrowtheQajardynastyandestablishthePahlavidynasty.UntiltheColdWar,BritainandtheSovietUnionmaintainedtheirinfluenceinPersia.In1935,RezaKhanchangedthenameofPersiatoIranintheinternationalarena,andsincethenbannedtheuseofthenameofPersia.

Ethnicity

Persians

ThePersiansarethemainethnicgroupofIraninWestAsia,alsoknownasIranians.Thepopulationis20.41million(1985),accountingforabout51%ofthetotalpopulationofthecountry.MainlyliveinthecentralandeasternprovincesofIran.Inaddition,morethan600,000peoplelivescatteredincountriessuchasAfghanistanandIraq.ItbelongstothesouthernMediterraneantypeoftheEuroparace,usesPersian,andbelongstotheIranianlanguagefamilyoftheIndo-Europeanfamily.BelieveinIslam,mostlyShia,averysmallnumberofpeoplebelieveinZoroastrianism(Zoroastrianism,Zoroastrianism),ManichaeismandNestorianism.

Iran’smainethnicgroup,alsoknownasIranians,hasapopulationof20.41million(1985),accountingforabout51%ofthecountry’stotalpopulation,mainlylivinginthecentralandeasternprovincesofIran.Inaddition,morethan600,000peoplelivescatteredincountriessuchasAfghanistanandIraq.ItbelongstothesouthernMediterraneantypeoftheEuroparace.ThelanguagebelongstotheIranianlanguagefamilyoftheIndo-Europeanfamily.StandardPersianoriginatedinthePahlaviregion.PeoplewhousethislanguageoftencallitFalsi,andsometimesitisalsocalledMedievalPersian.TherecordedhistoryandcultureofthePersiansbeganin2700BC.In2000BC,theAryansoftheancientPersiannomadictribeenteredtheareaof​​present-dayIranfromCentralAsia,andsettleddownbycrowdingoutthelocalindigenouspeople.AncientIraniansincludemanyethnicgroups,includingMedes,Persians,Parthians,Sassis,andScythians.Inthe6thto5thcenturiesBC,theMedesestablishedthecity-stateofOkbatan.Inthe8thcenturyBC,thePersiansacquiredthenameoftheirtribefromthisplacenameafteroccupyingthepresentFarsregionandestablishedapowerfulPersiaempire.ModernPersiansarepermanentresidents,halfofthemarefarmers.Theyaremostlyengagedinirrigatedagriculture.Themainfoodcropsarewheat,barleyandbeans;thecashcropsaretobacco,sugarbeet,sesame,etc.Somefarmershaveturnedtooilandconstructionindustries.Thehandicraftindustryhasalonghistory,andcarpets,ceramics,architecture,woolprocessing,etc.arewell-knownallovertheworld.BeforethePersiansconvertedtoIslam,theybelievedinZoroastrianismandManichaeism.AftertheArabEmpiredestroyedthePersianSassaniddynastyin642,thePersiansgraduallyconvertedtoIslamunderfusionandcoercion.Inthe11thcentury,IslamoccupiedadominantpositionamongthePersians.Beforetheearly16thcentury,theSunnishadadominantposition.In1502,thePersiansestablishedtheSafavidEmpireandestablishedtheShiite12Imamasthestatereligion.TakealladministrativemeasurestopromoteShiaandexcludeSunnis.98%ofmodernPersiansbelieveinShia.TheIranianConstitutionstipulatesthatthe12ShiiteImamsarethestatereligion,andstipulatesthatalllawspromulgatedbytheLegislativeAssemblymustconformtoIslamicteachings.IslamiclawalsostipulatesthatallmattersrelatedtoMuslims’marriageandfuneralcustoms,inheritanceofproperty,childsupport,religiouscourses,sectdisputes,etc.shallberuledbyShariahlaw.ThegovernmentdoesnotrecognizetheexistenceofMuslimminoritiesinthecountry,butitrecognizesthattherearenon-Muslimpeoples.Shiitereligiousstaffaredividedintotwocategories:publicandnon-public.Generally,famousmullahshavesemi-officialstatus.TheprimaryeducationofIranianMuslimsisgenerallyconductedintheGreatMosque,mainlylearningthe"Quran"andPersianscriptures.Theschoolisasecondaryreligiousschool,andtherearealsohigh-levelreligiousschools.ThefamousmullahteachesandsystematicallyteachesIslamicteachings.Philosophyandjurisprudence.BoththeGreatMullahandAyatollahcamefromQomTheologicalSeminary.ThePersiansarereligiousandpious,andattachgreatimportancetotheannualpilgrimage,fasts,andreligiousceremoniesofthedayofmourning(AshuraDay).Womenmustwearaveilwhentheygoout,andtheirdailylifeisalsostrictlyrestrictedbytheteachings.

Phoenicians

AfterthePhoeniciansontheMediterraneancoastwasincorporatedintothePersianEmpire,Phoenicianmerchantsgainedahugeinlandtradingarea.IntheMediterranean,theyalsowonthesupportofPersiainthestruggleagainsttheircommercialrivals,theGreeks.LikethePhoenicians,theAsianGreeksbecamethepeopleofPersia,buttheywereuntamedpeople;whilethePhoeniciansofSyriahelpedthePersiansalotandgainedtheirfavor.ThethreeSyrianPhoeniciancity-states,Aradus,TyreandSidon,weregrantedthestatusofsmalllocalautonomouskingdoms.ThePhoeniciansdidnotintendtobetraythePersians.Therefore,thePersiansdidnothavetoworrythatthePhoeniciancity-statesinthecolonywouldinterveneinSyrianaffairs.ThePersiansdidnotwanttoincorporatethePhoeniciansofLibyaandthePhoeniciansofSyriaintotheirempire.Onthecontrary,attheendofthe6thcenturyBC,theysignedananti-GreekagreementwiththeCarthaginians.ThePhoeniciansinthecolonyatthattimeTheCitizencity-statesformedaunitedfrontundertheleadershipofCarthage.

Jews

TheJewishcommunityinBabyloniaisanaturalallyofthePersians,becausethesejewswhohavelefttheirhomeshaveneverforgiventheBabylonianswhobanishedthem.Theyformedapro-Persianminority.InBabylonia,wheremostoftheresidentsareuncooperative,thisminorityisparticularlyvaluabletothePersians.AlthoughCyrusIIexpressedhiswillingnesstorespectthenationalself-esteemoftheBabyloniansby"joininghandswithBarr"outofstrategicconsiderations,itwasstilltonoavail.CyrusIIalsoallowedallJewswhowishtoleavetoreturntotheirhomelandintheJewishstateandrebuildtheirtempleinJerusalem.TheedictofCyrusIIcanbefoundinthearchivesofEkbatana(nowcalledHamadan),whichwasfurtherconfirmedbyDariusI.EitherArtaxerxesIin445BC,orArtaxerxesIIin384BC,allowedhisBabylonianJewishstewardNehemiahtotemporarilyleavethecapitalSusa,andhewasliabletogototheJewishstateThemissiontore-fortifythecityofJerusalem.BothDariusIandArtaxerxeshadapprovedbudgetsandbuildingmaterialsfortheJewsundertheirauthorizationtorebuildpublicprojectsinJerusalem.

TheAramis

Persia(5photos)

LiketheJewsandPhoenicians,theAramisalsobenefitedfromthePersianEmpireNotshallow.ThedisseminationoftheAramaiclanguage,whichhadbegunduringtheperiodofAssyrianrule,hasmadeconsiderableprogressunderPersianrule.InSyria,Canaanite(Hebrew)wasgraduallyreplacedbyAramaic.Canaanitewasonlyusedasalanguageforritualsandcontinuedtoexistinasmallarea.Asadailylanguage,itwasonlyusedbythePhoeniciansintheWestBankoftheMediterranean.Usedinthecolonialworld.TheAramaiclanguagecontinuestospreadeastwardatthesametimeastheAramaicalphabet,whichismoreconvenientandpracticalthancuneiformwriting.LiketheUgaritpeoplesevenoreightcenturiesago,thePersianschosesomewordsfromtheSumerian-Akkadianlibrarytoformasetofletters.WhenDariusIrecordedhismartialartsinthreescriptsonthestonecliffsofBechstown,heinscribedthePersianscriptinPersiancuneiformwriting.Atthesametime,heinscribedtheEgyptiancuneiformscriptinSumeriancuneiformwriting,whichisbothtraditionalandcomplex.TranslationsofLanvinandAkkadian.However,thePersiancuneiformscriptsufferedthesamefateastheUgaritscript.ItfailedtoresisttheimpactofthewaveofletterscomposedofthemoreconciseandclearAramaicalphabet,whichdatesbacktothebeginningofthelastmillenniumBCHasbecomepopularinPhoenicia.By330BC,mostoftheofficialdocumentsofthePersianEmpirehadalreadyusedtheAramaiclanguage.However,perhapstheseletterswerestillpronouncedinPersian,thatis,acombinationoflettersofAramaic,whichreadslikethisAramaic.Persiantransliterationoftheword.

TheMedes

Asaresult,themainethnicgroupsinSyriaarecontenttobesubjectsofthePersians,whiletheMedes,whoarerelatedbybloodtothePersians,feellesshappy.Astheyshowedintheuprisingof522BC,theyrememberthattheywereonceaninvinciblepeople,andthePersiansweretheirsubjects.However,despitetherebelliousnessoftheMedes,thePersiansonceagainallowedthemtobepartnersoftheMedes-PersianEmpire,whichwasmuchlargerandstrongerthanthepreviousMedes.TheElamitesmaybealittleflattered,becausetheircapital,Susa,hasbeenupgradedtothecapitaloftheempire.TheIranian-speakingpeoplesinthenortheasternpartofthecountrypersistedinaresistancemovementforthreeyearsaftertheempirewassubjugatedtoopposetherulerofMacedonia,thusshowingtheirdeepaffectionforthePersianEmpire.TheScythians,anomadicpeopleintheeast,usedtobeenemiesofCyrusII,butafterbeingconqueredbyDariusI,theyseemedtobeveryloyaltotheempire.WhenXerxesfoughtintheGreekcity-statesinEuropein480BC,theysecuredstrategiclocations.From330BCto328BC,theyalsosupportedtheneighbourswholivedinruralareasagainstAlexandertheGreat.

WestAsians

However,amongtheconqueredpeoples,therearethreepeoplesthatshowincompatibilitywithPersianrule,namelyBabylonians,EgyptiansandAsianGreeks.Duringthiscriticalperiodof522BC,theBabylonianshadnotonlyoneuprising,buttwo.In484BC,theyrevoltedagain.However,thistime,thePersiansdidnothesitatetosuppresstheuprising.Fromthenon,untiltheywerefinallyliberatedbyAlexander,theBabyloniansfellintodisrepair.ThePersianscouldnotlettheBabyloniansgetoutoftheircontrol.BabylonwasthegranaryandfactoryofthePersianEmpireandthehuboftheempire’sinlandtransportationnetwork.Ontheotherhand,theoccupationofEgyptisnolessaburdentothePersianEmpire,justasitwasaburdentotheAssyrians.EgyptisfartherfromFarsthanfromAssyria.WhenrebellingagainstitsAsianmastersonitscontinent,itcanacceptreinforcementsfromtheGreeksfromthesea.AlthoughEgyptwasdefeatedin522BC,itroseagainattheendofthereignofDariusI.Theygainedindependencetwicein464-455BC,404BCor395-343BC.WhenitwasconqueredbythePersiansagain,itwasonlyadozenyearssincetheoverthrowofthePersianEmpireitself.

ThePersianEmpireisashort-livedworldempire,butitsreligioustolerancepolicyhasproducedenduringeffects.Thispolicyconformstothetrendofinter-religiousreconciliationofdifferentbeliefs,andtheexilepolicyoftheAssyriansandBabylonianspromotedtheformationofthistrend.Aconquerorcanexilemembersoftherulinggroupoftheconqueredcountry,butcannotexileitsgods.Thefarmerswhostayedtherewillcontinuetoworshipthem,andimmigrantscannotignorethem.TheworshipofJehovahinBethel,themainreligioussacredplaceoftheformerKingdomofIsrael,wasbroughteastwardintoBabyloniaandsouthwardtoElifantini,aborderfortressbelowthefirstwaterfalloftheNile.Inthe5thcenturyBC,inthisplace,aJewishgarrisonservingthePersiansenshrinedEhimon,Annat,andJehovahatthesametime.ThesoldiersofthisarmywereallexiledtoBabylonbyNebuchadnezzar.DescendantsofJewshidinginEgyptduetobadluck.

IntheJewishcommunityofEliphantini,hemaintainsfriendlycorrespondencewithSambart,thechiefofSamaria.DuringthePersianrule,beforeNehemiah'smission,JerusalembelongedtotheSamaritanarea.JudgingfromthesurnameofShanbarat(Sinubalit),heisadescendantoftheBabylonianexiles.Ifyoulookatthenamesofhissons(Dara'aandShelemaya),theyareallbelieversofJehovah.,Notaworshiperofthemoongod.Atthistime,theinhabitantsofSamariahadstrictlyandexclusivelybelievedinJehovah.ExceptforthePentateuch,theydidnotrecognizeanyhandwrittendocumentsasscriptures,nordidtheyrecognizetheexistenceofnon-handwrittenscriptures.However,whenNehemiah,therepresentativeoftheBabylonianJewishcommunity,arrivedinJerusalembydecree,Shanbaratclashedwithhim.InordertoenableNehemiahandEzratocarryouttheirdecisivework,thePersianimperialgovernmentunwiselychangeditsgeneralpolicyoftolerancetowardsreligion.ThisunusualingratiatingattitudeunderminedthemostimportantcodeofconductofthePersiangovernmentitself.Thisisapassivestatebehavior.However,thispassivebehaviorhascausedmoreseriousconsequencesthananyactivebehaviorofthePersiangovernment.Thiscannotbutbesaidtobeamockeryofhistory.

Overview

ThereligiousliberalizationandpoliticalliberalizationpoliciesofthePersianemperorshavebroughtharmonybetweenthePersianregimeandthevariousethnicgroupsinSyria.ThevariousethnicgroupsinSyriahavestubbornlyopposedtheconquerorsofAssyriaandBabylonsuccessively.IntheeyesofthePhoenicians,SamaritansandJews,thePersiansaresimplygreatsaviors.

Chronologyofevents

The9thcenturybefore

ThePersiansareabranchoftheIndo-Europeanlanguagefamily,whichoriginatedinthemountainsnorthoftheCaucasus

Afterthe7thcenturybefore

SettledinthesouthernpartofthePersianplateau,onceruledbytheplateau’sowner,theMedia(Media)

550yearsbefore

Cyrus(Cyrus))ConquertheMedesandestablishthe"Achaemeniddynasty",expandtheMedesonthebasisoftheMedes,relyondiplomaticmeans,andgraduallyestablishanempirethroughtheconquestofmilitaryforces.

Thefirst539years

CyrusattackedtheChaldianEmpire,releasedthe"PrisonersofBabylon",occupiedSyriaandPalestine,andimplementedenlightenedrule.

Thefirst529years

Cyruswasseriouslyinjuredanddiedduringthebattle,andhissonCambysessucceeded.

Thefirst525years

CambysesconqueredEgyptandestablishedtheTheGreatEmpire

512yearsago

DariusledhisarmytocrosstheseathroughAsiaMinortoinvadeEurope,becomingthefirstempireacrossEurope,Asia,andAfrica(Territoriesincludepresent-dayIran,Mesopotamia,AsiaMinor,acornerofSoutheastEurope,Egypt,Palestine)

499yearsago

Greekcity-statesbrokeoutinriotsfromPersianrule

494yearsago

DariusputdownthetroublesintheGreekcity-states,andthendecidedtosendtroopstoattackAthens

In476yearsago

TheBossWarended,althoughtheGreekcity-statesWin,butloseboth.

330yearsago

AlexandertheGreatwhodiedinMacedonia

BossianWar

Background:Darius(Darius)expandedtoEuropeandoppressedtheGreeksinAsiaMinor.Threewarsbrokeoutbetweenthetwosides.

Theresult:Persiawasdefeatedanditsvitalitywasgreatlyinjured.Afterthat,theempirefellintoalongperiodofinternalandexternaltroubles,andwasfinallyconqueredbytheMacedonians

Meaning:ThevictoryoftheGreeksandthedefeatofthePersianssymbolizethedeclineoftheclassicalcivilizationoftheNearEastandtheriseoftheancientcivilizationoftheMediterranean.

Culture

Language

The22symbolsusedbytheCanaanitesweretransformedintophoneticlettersthatareconvenientforwritingandlearning.Afterbeingpassedontothewest,theybecameGreekletters.ThecommonfoundationoftheLatinalphabetandotherEuropeanalphabetsisthemostprominentcontributiontoitsculture.

PersianliteratureinthehistoryofworldliteraturereferstoliteraturewritteninPersian(ieDari).Atthebeginningofthe9thcentury,PersianliteratureappearedfirstintheKhorasanregioninnortheasternPersia.Sincethen,indifferenthistoricalperiods,withPersianasthecenter,intheCaucasusandCentralAsia,Afghanistan,northernIndiaandtheeasterncoastoftheMediterraneanhavefamousPersianpoetsandwriters.

Asearlyasthe6thcenturyBC,Cyrus,thechiefofthePersiantribeintheFarsregionofIran,establishedaunifiedslaveryempire,theAchaemenidEmpire.Beforethe3rdcenturyAD,ancientPersian(cuneiformscript)wascommonlyusedinsouthwesternIran.ItwascarvedonthemountainnearKermanshahinwesternIranabouttheperformanceofEmperorDarius(reignedfrom521to485BC).ThescriptisancientPersian;innortheasternIran,Avistoisprevalent,andtherearealreadybuddingpoetryinthefireworshipscripture"Avisto".AftertheestablishmentofthePersianParthiandynasty(after250AD),theMiddleAncientPersianlanguage,namelyPahlavi(NorthPahlavi),prevailedinIran.DuringtheSassaniddynasty(224～651),theSassanidPahlavi(SouthPahlavi)wasprevalent.SasanPahlavihasawealthofliteratureandinformation.Amongthemaremanyreligious,geographical,historicalandliteraryworks.TheprototypeofmanyworksintheheydayofPersianliteratureintheMiddleAgescanbetracedbacktotheearlyPahlaviliterature.Forexample,thelostPahlavilanguage"TheBookofKings"isthebasicmaterialoftheepic"BookofKings"writtenbyFerdósiinthe10thcentury."AThousandandOneNights"isalsoderivedfromthePahlavistorybook"AThousandStories".

Inthe7thcentury,theArabsdestroyedtheSassaniddynastyandplacedPersiaintheterritoryoftheArabempirewithaunityofreligionandpolitics.Arabicbecametheofficiallanguage.Butinthenext300years,PahlaviwasstillspokeninPersia,andnewwritingsappeared.Attheendofthe8thcentury,PahlavimergedwithadialectincentralandwesternPersia,andgraduallyproducedanewlanguage,DariPersian.Bythe10thcentury,DariPersianhadreplacedPahlaviandbecamethecommonlanguageofPersians.

DuringtheruleoftheArabCaliphate,Persialostitspoliticalindependence.IslamreplacedZoroastrianismandManichaeisminPersiaandbecamethemainreligiousbeliefofthePersians.ThroughArabictranslation,thePersianshadmoreextensiveexposuretoancientGreekphilosophyandscientificworksthanbefore.PersianpoetryadoptstherhythmofArabicpoetry(Aruz),andPersianproseabsorbstheexpressionmethodofrhyme(Sazhi)inArabicprose.Thisistheresultoftheclosecontactandintegrationofthetwoethnicgroups.

Underalienrule,Persiastronglydemandednationalindependence.Thisdesirewasreflectedinthepoliticalrealmandgaverisetothe"ShubiMovement".

Promotingandsponsoring

Thismovementadvocatesthatnon-ArabMuslimsandArabMuslimsenjoyequalpoliticalstatus,andpromotesthatPersiancivilizationissuperiortoArabcivilization.The"ShubiMovement"isapoliticalfactorintheriseanddevelopmentofPersianliterature.

Art

Intermsofart,thePersianEmpireleftavaluablelegacy.Theempirerecruitedlaborersandconstructionmaterialsfromtheconquerednationstobuildpalacesanddecoratethecapital.PersianarchitecturecombinestheartisticachievementsofthevariousethnicgroupsinEgypt,Babylon,andancientGreecetoformitsownuniquemajesticandmagnificentstyle.ThepalaceofPersepolis,thenewcapitalofDariusI,isbuiltonahighplatformmadeofhugestones.Therearethepalaceoftheking’sadministrationandthehallofhundredpillars.Thepillarsare7.62metershighandhavesacredcows,hornedlionsandhumanfacesastheheads(SeethecolorpicturePersepolisPalace,theHallofVisitation).Onthewallonthesideofthehighsteps,therearereliefsoftheimmortalarmy,courtiers,andvariousconquerednationsofferingtribute.TheruinsofSusa’spalacehavecolorfulglazedbrickwallsdepictingtheking’sguardsandvariousbeasts.Allthisisdesignedtoshowthegreatnessoftheempireandthedignityoftheking.MetalworkisalsoahighlydevelopedcraftinPersia.Artistsusedhammerpressingtomakevariousexoticanimal-shapedgoldpiecestodecoratethegatesandutensilsofthepalace.TakethecityofPersepolisasanexample:thebaseplatformisimitatedfromWestAsia;themainhallwithlargestonepillarsisimitatedfromanEgyptiantemple;thegroovesandspiralsofthestonepillarsareinfluencedbyancientGreece;thestonelionsandtemplesonbothsidesofthetemplegateThewalls,reliefsandglazedtilesontheroofaresimilartotheAssyrianarchitecturalstyle.

Literature

Rudaki

DuetothePersianuprisingsandtheincreasingpoliticalpoweroftheupperrulinggroup,attheendofthe9thcentury,thePersianshadactuallygottenridofUndertheruleoftheArabs,manylocalgovernmentswereestablished.TherulersoftheSamanDynasty(875-999)intheKhorasanregioninthenortheastpaidmoreattentiontoprotectingliteratiandadvocatingliterarycreationthanthemonarchsofotherlocalregimes.Rudaki(850～941),thefirstfamouspoetinthehistoryofPersianliterature,wasacourtpoetoftheSamanDynasty.

RudakiwasborninSamarkand,andthereareaboutdozensofPersianpoetsofhistime.Atthattimethereweretwopoetrycenters:onewasSamarkandandBukharainCentralAsia;theotherwasBalkhandMulu.Rudakiisgoodatmusicandisfamiliarwithfolkcreation.Hispoemsexpressthepeople'sfeelingsandwishestoacertainextent.TheformsofPersianpoetry,suchasodes,lyrics,narrativepoemsandfour-linepoems,weregraduallyfinalizedthroughthecreationofRudakiandhiscontemporaries.Therefore,latergenerationscalledRudakithe"FatherofPersianPoetry".

Firdosi

WhenRudakidied,themostfamouspoetinthehistoryofPersianliterature,Ferdosi(940～1020),wasborninHorasantus.PhilDorseyistheauthoroftheepic"BookofKings".Thelanguageof"BookofKings"isbeautifulandfluentPersian.Atthattime,ArabicwasverypopularinPersia,buttheauthorconsciouslyavoidedusingArabicwords.BeforeFirdosiwrote"TheBookofKings",theSamaniancourtpoetTajiki(died978)wasorderedtowritethe"BookofKings",buthediedaftercompletingonlyathousandlines.PhilDorseyrecordedhisthousandlinesofpoemsinhis"BookofKings"asamemorial.Firdosi’s"BookofKings"reflectsthePersians’nationalindependencethoughts,andhasplayedaroleininspiringthePersians’patriotism,encouragingthemtoresistforeignaggression,inheritingandcarryingforwardtheancientPersianliterarytraditionandcreatingthePersianliterarylanguage.Importantrole.

TheKingofPoets

AfterFirdosi,intheGhaznaviddynasty,famouspoetsincludeAnsari(diedin1039)andFarosi(diedin1038))AndManuchehri(died1041).Theyareallcourtpoets.Ansariwasonceknownasthe"KingofPoets."

ThecommoncharacteristicsoftheworksofthepoetsinKhorasanareconcisenarrative,simplelanguage,descriptionoftheenvironmentandcharactersbutnotoverlyarranged,scientifictermsandArabicwordsarerarelyincludedinthepoem.Thisstyleiscalled"Khorasanstyle"inthehistoryofliterature.

PhilosophicalPoet

ThefamousPersianphilosophicalpoetOmarHayam(1048-1122)livedinthePersianSeljukEmpire(1055-1194).Hewasawell-knownscholaratthetime.Hispoemsarestronglyanti-feudalandanti-religious,andtherulingclasscallshispoems"asnakethatdevoursdoctrine."

Iraqian

Afterthe12thcentury,thecenterofPersianculturemovedwestward.Attheendofthe11thcentury,thecreationofpoetryandessaysintheKhorasangareabegantodecline,andthecreationofthewesternandsouthwesternregionsgraduallyflourished.ThereareobviousdifferencesbetweentheworksofSouthwesternpoetsandtheHorasanstyle.Theirnarrativesoftenusebixingtechniques,andtheirdescriptionsaremoreeuphemisticanddelicate.Arabicandscientificwordsareincludedinthepoems.Thecontentofthepoemsisricherthanbefore,andthetextiselegantandsubtle,whichiscalled"Iraqistyle"inthehistoryofliterature.ItsrepresentativesareAnwari(died1187),Haqqani(1126-1198)andNezhami(1141-1209).ThesouthernpoetSadie(1208~1292)wasareformeroftheIraqistyle.Hispoemshaveclearerthemesandeasierlanguage.

NarrativePoet

NezamiisthemostoutstandingnarrativepoetsinceFerdowsi.HeisanAzerbaijaniandwasborninGanja(inpresent-dayAzerbaijan).Themainworksare"FiveVolumePoems",namely"SecretTreasure"(1173-1180),"HosluandXilin"(1181),"LailyandMaJinong"(1188),"SevenBeauties"(alsoknownas"SevenTreasurePalace",1196)and"TheAlexanderStory"(1200)."FiveVolumePoems"enjoysahighreputationinCentralAsia,Indiaandotherregions,andpoetsofallethnicgroupsareracingtolearnandimitateNezami'sworks.

Atthebeginningofthe13thcentury,theMongolsinvadedfromthenortheast,theKhorasanareawasthefirsttobearthebrunt,andliteratifledinwardoneafteranother,thusenliveningthesouthernliteraryscene.However,thetwogreatpoetsSadieandHafez(1320~1389)representingPersianliteratureduringthisperiodwerebothborninthefamoussoutherncityofShiraz.

Sadi’smainworksare"Orchard"and"RoseGarden".Hisworksarefullofprofoundhumanitarianthoughts,reflectingthedissatisfactionofthelowerclasswithfeudaloppression."TheRoseGarden"hasgainedawideworldreputation.IthasalwaysbeenatextbookforlearningPersianlanguage,anditisalsoaworkthatinheritsthepastandthenextinthedevelopmentofPersianprose.

Persianprose

Sincethebeginningofthe9thcentury,ithasdevelopedsmoothlyundertheadvocacyoftherulersoftheSamandynasty.Theproseintheearlydayswassimpleandunpretentious,andtherewassomethingtosay.Fromtheendofthe11thcentury,PersianproseintroducedtheArabicverseform(Sazhi).ThisreflectsthegrowinginfluenceofIslam.

ThecontentofPersianliteraryprosecanbedividedintothreecategories:①Emperorandherostories,suchastheprose"BookofKings";②Lovelegends,representativeworksincludethe"BahtiarStory"(inbookIntheSamanperiod)and"SamaktheSpies"(writtenin1189);③Moraladmonitionstories,representativeworksaretranslatedfromArabic"KarilaiandDimuNai"and"TheCollectionofQaboos"(writtenin1082)year).Sadie's"TheRoseGarden"isthedevelopmentofthethirdcategoryofproseworks.

ForthesituationofthethreeancientPersianpoets,youcanrefertomylastlecture:[Large-scaleLectureSeriesonAncientPersiabyGeneralYiliIII]TheancientPersianfiguressaidonebyone.

Sadi’scontemporaries,Moravi(Rumi,1207～1273),isthemainrepresentativepoetofSufiliterature(Sufimeanspeoplewhowearcoarsewoolenfabrics).MoraviwasborninBalkh(nowinAfghanistan)andisthesuccessorofthefamousIranianSufipoetsSanayi(?~1141)andAtal(1145~1229).Hismainworksare6volumesofnarrativepoemsandalargenumberoflyricpoems.

Sufism

isamysticismtrendthataroseinIraqandnorthernSyriainthe8thcentury,andthenspreadwidelyinCentralAsia,India,Indonesiaandotherplaces.TheydonotdenyIslamonthesurface,butarbitrarilyexplainandextenditsteachings.Theydenyhumanhappiness,advocateasceticism,andpursueabstracttruth(theso-calledperceptionoftheexistenceoftheLord,theunityoftheheartandtheLord).ThisideawasintroducedtoPersiaatthebeginningofthe9thcenturyandwaswidelyspreadamongurbanandruralhandicraftsmen,becomingtheirweaponagainstfeudaloppressionandreligiousshackles.Sufismlatersplitintodifferentfactions.Onefactionisattachedtotherulingclassandemphasizesitsmystery;theotherfactionopposesIslam,condemnsreligiousrule,andadvocatesfreedomofthought.ThefamouslyricpoetHafezistherepresentativeofthelattergroupofpoets.HafizcarriedforwardthecharacteristicsofSadie'slyricpoems.Hispoeticfeelingsaresincere,hislanguageisbeautiful,andheisgoodatdistillingthelanguageoflifeintoarefinedandaccurateliterarylanguage.

Jami

ThelastpoetduringtheprosperityofPersianliteraturewasJamie(1414～1492).HeisaSufistscholarandhaswrittenbiographiesof616Sufists.HewascloselyrelatedtotheTimuriddynasty,whichwasthecapitalofHerat.Jamie’smainworkis"SevenVolumesofPoems"(alsoknownas"SevenThrones"),4volumesontheologyand3volumesofnarrativepoems.Amongthem,"YusufandZoreha",whichistakenfromthe"Quran"story,isthemostfamous.HisnarrativepoemsimitateNezami,andtheprosebook"SpringGarden"imitatesSadie's"RoseGarden".

Sincethen,greatchangeshavetakenplaceinIraqipoetry,andlyricpoemswithconciselanguageandfullofemotionarerare.Poetsspecializeinimitationincontentandform,tryingtoconcealtheirlackofthoughtwithpeculiarmetaphorsandobscuresentences.Themediocreconcept,theslangwords,thesculpturaldecoration,andthepretendingtobeelegantarethecommoncharacteristicsofpoetrycreationinthisperiod.Inthehistoryofliterature,thisstyleiscalled"Indianstyle".

Inthe18thcentury,southernpoetscenteredonIsfahanandShirazsetoffa"retromovement"againstthe"Indianstyle",demandingthatpoetrycreationrestorethe"Iraqistyle"or"Hora".Mulberry",buttherewasnoresult.Becausetheurgenttaskfacingliteratureatthattimeisnotlimitedtoreformingthepoeticexpressionmethod,buttoreflectthenewsocialcontradictionsinatimelyandaccuratemanner.

Mythology

Inthehistoryofarchaeologicalculture,ancientPersiabelongstotheMesopotamianculturalregion,whichistheculturalregionofWestAsiatoday.Archeologists’researchprovesthatinancienttimes,theancientPersiansandAryansoriginallybelongedtoabranchoftheIndo-Europeanlanguagefamily.TheylivedinthesteppesofSouthRussiaandtheeasternpartoftheVolgaRiverbecauseofthespecialgeographicalandnaturalenvironmentofthesteppes.,Theyrelyonnomadstosustaintheirlives.Withthepassageoftime,theygraduallydividedintoPersian-AryansandIndian-Aryans.Thisdifferentiationdirectlyaffectedtheformationofnationalreligionsandmythologicaltraditions.

In2000BC,theancientPersiansgraduallygotridofthenomadictribe'swayoflifeandgaverisetoearlyreligiousactivities.Inthereligiousactivitiesatthattime,whattheancientPersiansadmiredmostwasanancientandmysterioussacrificialritual,whichwasessentiallyaprimitiveworshipofnature.Inthefaceofnaturaldisasters,theancientPersiansfeltataloss,notonlyunabletocopewiththem,butalsodeeplyfeared.ThismadetheancientPersiansveryurgentlyneedabelieftoeliminatetheirinnerfears,sotheoldestguardiangodinPersianmythologywasborn.BecausetheancientPersiansbelievedthatalldisastersandgiftsintheworldarecontrolledbythegodsinthesky.Iftheyfindasuitableprotector,andcontinuetooffersacrificestohimandpraypiously,Biancanavoidalldisastersandlive.Acarefreelife.

Afterthecreationoftheguardiangod,somelegendsabouttheguardiangodbegantoappear.TheancientPersiansgraduallyspreadvariouslegendsabouttheguardiangodtovariousplacesinoralform.Whenthelegendofthegodsspreadinvariousplacesinoralform,thisoriginalformofspreadwassoonbrokenbytheappearanceofwords.TheappearanceofwordsallowedtheancientPersianstofindanotherwaytorecordlegendsofgods.Atthesametime,withthedevelopmentofprimitivecivilization,theyengravedsomeimagesofgodsonvariousartifacts,orpaintedstoriesofgodsonrockwallsinprimitivepaintingform,andevenusedsimplemethodstomoldimagesofgodsandworshipthem.Inthepalace.RegardlessofwhethertheancientPersiansencounterednaturaldisastersorharvestyears,itwasattributedtotheroleoftheprotector.Theybelievedthatinthegodrealmthatmortalscannotreach,theirowngodsdominatethehumanworld,andtheirowngodscreateeverythingintheworld.Drivenbythisconcept,moreworshippedgodsdescendedintothelivesoftheancientPersians,andthesystemofPersianmythologygraduallybecamecomplete.

InthesixthcenturyBC,thePersianZoroastrianfoundedZoroastrianism,anditsteachingsputforwardmonotheismanddualism.TheonlygodthatZoroastrianismobeysisthegreatgoodgodAhuraMazda.Hisenemyisthesub-godAngelaManuel,andthereisaneternalstrugglebetweenthegoodgodandtheevilgod.InPersianhistory,withtheemergenceandmaturityofZoroastrianism,thebattlebetweengoodandevilhasbecomemoreandmorefierce,becauseZoroastrianismadvocatesdualism,anditsdoctrineistoconverttheworldAllthingsaredividedintotwoopposites,includinggoodandevil,lightanddarkness.Therefore,inPersianmythology,thereisawarbetweenthesupremegoodgodAhuraandthesupremeevilgodAngela,whichrepresentslightandjustice..Thewarbetweenthemlastedthreethousandyears.Inthiswar,theSupremeGoodGodAhuraMazdacreatedeverythingintheworldandultimatelydefeatedtheSupremeEvilGodAngelaManuel.

ThefirstpersonintheworldcreatedbytheSupremeGoodGodAhuraMazda,theprimitiveKayumorz,establishedtheworld-famouskingdomofPersiawithhisassistance,andBecomethefirstking.

Civilization

ThePersiansareahighlydevelopednationamongmanyancientcivilizations,withalonghistory.IntheeraspannedbyAgeofEmpires2,thePersiancivilizationonlybegantoflourishinthethirdcenturyAD.ThisisnottomisinterpretthehistoryofPersia.Infact,PersiaintheAgeofEmpiresalsoincludesthePersianEmpire(beginninginthethirdcentury)Thepredecessor.Startinginthethirdcentury,thiscivilizationappearedonthestageofhistoryunderthenameofthePersianEmpireuntiltheseventeenthcenturyAD.Inthepreviouscenturies,thislandhadbeenruledbymanyforcesoriginatingintheMediterraneanregion,butiteventuallybecameanindependentkingdom,restoredthefreedomandglorybelongingtothenation,anddevelopedintoacross-MesoTheEmpireofPotamiaandIndia.Iran,Iraq,andAfghanStanoncebelongedtotheterritoryoftheancientPersianEmpire.

Later,whentheRomanEmpirewasdivided,thePersiansputtheirformidablemilitarypowerintoaseriesofnewwars.TheirnewenemyisthesuccessoroftheRomanEmpire:Byzantine.ThePersiansbegantolaunchcontinuousonslaughtfromtheborderareasofByzantium-Syria,Palestine,Egypt,andTurkey.ThemostgloriousmomentinPersianhistoryfinallycamein619AD.ThePersianEmpirecompletelyconqueredtheentireEgyptianregionandtheCaucasusMountains.In626AD,thePersiansendedinadisastrousdefeatinthesiegeoftheByzantinecapital.TheByzantinestookadvantageoftheopportunityandbegantoinvadetheterritoryofthePersianEmpire.Yearsofendlessbattleshaveinfactsoundedthedeathknellforthesetwooriginallypowerfulcivilizations.In628AD,whenbothsideswereexhausted,therulersfinallyagreedtosignalong-overduepeacetreaty.Afterthat,thePersianEmpire,greatlyweakenedbythewar,wascapturedbytheArabMuslimlegionsfromtheArabianPeninsula.

In651AD,ArabMuslimforcesconqueredthePersianEmpireandcompletelyoccupiedtheterritoryofthePersianEmpireinjusttenyears.ThisnewIslamicKingdomiscalledIran.However,thishotlandseemedtoneverbeabletoachievepeace,andinthefollowinghundredsofyears,newaggressorscontinuedtoappear.ThefirstistheSeljukturkmens(Seljukturkmens)whoconqueredthewholeterritoryofPersia.WhatfollowedwastheterrifyingMongollegion,andthentheTurkmen(Turkmens).

Thenewdawndidnotappearuntilthe16thcentury.Like1300yearsago,thePersiansfinallyregainedtheirterritoryandestablishedtheSafavidEmpire.CyrusII(559-529BC),adescendantofaseriesofrulersofMesopotamia,wasalenientandreveredmonarch,andwascalledtheirfatherbytheancientPersians(subsequentpaternitytestsshowedItisalmostimpossiblethatheisthefatherof"all"ofthem).AfterasuccessfulstruggleagainsttheLordAkamilisin550BCandinheritingtheKingdomofMedes,CyrusconsolidatedhisruleintheIranianhighlandsandextendedwestwardtoAsiaMinor.InOctober539BC,Babylon,agreatcityinancienttimes,wastakenbyhisPersianarmy.

AlthoughtheysuccessfullymadepeacewithEgyptandsuppressedtheBabylonianuprising,theGreekcity-statesfinallymaintainedaconcertedactionanddefeatedXerxes,markingthebeginningofthedeclineofthePersianEmpire.Becausehisself-esteemstimulatedhimafterthefailure,Xerxesdecidedtoretire.ThedeathofXerxeswasthefinalturningpointofPersianinfluence.Thevitalityandabilitiesthatsomeofhissuccessorsshowedaccidentallyweretooraretopreventthefinalcollapse.PersepoliswasfinallytakenbyAlexandertheGreatinApril330BC.conquer.InthestruggleforpowerafterAlexander'sdeath,SeleusIsuccessfullycapturedthePersianterritoryundertheAlexanderEmpire.

Architecture

Fromthe6thtothe4thcenturyBC,thePersianEmpirewasstrong.PersianarchitectureinheritedthetraditionsoftheMesopotamia,drewonthearchitecturalachievementsofGreece,Egyptandotherregions,anddeveloped.ThenewcapitalPersepoliswasbuiltbetween518and460BC.Thepalacewasbuiltonaplatformbuiltagainstthemountain,withaheightofabout15meters,alengthof460meters,andawidthof275meters.Therearetwoceremonialhallsinthenorth,treasuryinthesoutheast,andtheroyalpalaceandhareminthesouthwest,surroundedbygardensandpavilions.Thelayoutisregular,butthereisnoaxisrelationshipasawhole.ThepalaceismainlybuiltwithhardcoloredlimestonefromtheIranianplateau.Thereisalargeplatformandlargestepsinfrontofthefrontentrance.Thewallsonbothsidesofthestepsarecarvedwithreliefgroupimages,whichsymbolizetheranksofalldirections,adapttotheshapeofthelargesteps,stepupstepbystep,andharmonizewiththearchitecturalform.(Seethecolorpictureofthestep-reliefbeltofthePersepolisPalaceinthePersianEmpire,6thto5thcenturiesBC)Thetwoceremonialhallsaresquareinplan,withstonepillarsandwoodenbeams.ThefrontoneisthereceptionhallofXerxesI,76.2meterssquare.Thereare36stonepillarsinthehall,thepillarheightis19.4meters,theratioofthepillardiametertothepillarheightis1:12,andtheverticalandhorizontalspacingofthepillarcentersis8.74meters.Therearetowersatthefourcornersofthemainhall.Betweenthetowersaretwoentrancecolonnades,abouthalftheheightofthemainhall.Themainhallhashighsidewindows.Thecolonnadeonthewestisthereviewingplatform,whichoverlooksthetentssetupbytheforeignenvoysofthetributary.TheotherhallistheDariusHundredPillarsHall,68.6meterssquare,100stonepillars,and11.3metershigh.Thelightstructureandspaciousspaceofthetwomainhallsarerareinancientbuildings.Theexteriorwallsofthepalacearepastedwithblackandwhitemarbleorglazedtiles,withcoloredreliefsonthetop.Thewoodenarchesandtheeavesarecoveredwithgoldleaf.Theinteriorwallsofthehallaredecoratedwithmurals.Thecarvingsonthestonepillarsareexquisite.Thebell-shapedcolumnbaseisengravedwithpetalpatterns,andtheupperpartofthebell-coveredbellissemi-circularmolding.Thecolumnhas40to48grooves.Thestigmaconsistsofacoveredbell,abowl,severalpairsoferectscrolls,andapairofbullskneelingagainsteachother.

Customs

TheancientPersiansdidnotsupportgods,didnotbuildtemples,anddidnotsetupaltars.Theyusedtoworshipthegods,sun,moon,earth,fire,water,andwindonthehighestmountain..Thepersonwhoofferedthesacrificetookthelivestockhewasabouttoslaughtertoacleanplace,wherehecalledthenameofthegodtowhomhewantedtosacrifice.ItiscustomaryforthispersontowearawreathofprobablyMyrtleontheheadscarf.Thepersonwhoofferssacrificesisnotallowedtoprayonlyforhimself.HemustprayforthekingandforthehappinessofallPersians,becausehemustbeamongallPersians.Hethencuttheslaughteredlivestockmeatintopieces,andaftercookingthem,heputthemallonthefreshestandsoftgrasshecouldfind,especiallyclover.Afterallthiswasdone,apriestcametosingahymn.AccordingtothePersians,thishymndetailedtheoriginsofthegods.Unlessthereisapriestpresent,anyactofsacrificingsacrificesisillegal.Afterawhile,thedevoteecantakeawaythemeatasasacrifice,whateverhecandowithit.

Amongthedaysoftheyear,whattheycelebratemostiseveryone’sbirthday.Theybelievethatthemealeatenonthisdayshouldbemoreabundantthanonotherdays.ThericherPersiansgrilledwholecows,horses,camelsordonkeysinthestoveforfood,whilethepoorerpeoplereplacedthemwithsmallerlivestock.Theydon’thavemanymaindishes,butafterthemaindishestherearemanydimsumsandthelike,andthiskindofdimsumisnotservedallatonce.Theylikewineverymuchandhavealotofalcohol.Inaddition,theyusuallytalkaboutthemostimportanteventswhentheyaredrinking.Andwhentheyweresoberthenextday,theownerofthehousewheretheyweremeetingputforwardthedecisionmadethepreviousnightinfrontofthem;ifthedecisionwasstillagreed,theywouldadoptit;iftheydisagreed,Justputthisdecisionaside.Butwhattheytalkedaboutwhentheyweresoberwasalwaysreconsideredwhentheyweredrunk.

Iftheymeetonthestreet,fromthesignbelow,onecanknowthattheidentitiesofthetwopeoplewhomeetareequal.Thatistosay,iftheyarepeopleofequalstanding,theydonottalkatfirst,butkisseachother'slips.Ifoneofthemisalittlelowerthantheother,itisakissonthecheek:ifthetwoareverydifferent,thenonewillbowdowninfrontoftheother.Theyrespectthenationclosesttothemthemost,thinkingthatthisnationissecondonlytothemselves,andthosewhoarefartherawayarelessrespected,andsoon;thefarthertheyare,theworsetherespect.Thereasonforthisviewisthattheythinkthattheyaremuchsuperiortoallotherpeopleinallrespects,andthatthecloserotherpeoplelivetothem,themoresuperiortheyare.Therefore,theonewholivesthefurthestawayfromthemmustbetheworstamonghumanbeings.

Therearemanyheirs,andintheireyesitisthegreatestvirtueofmensecondonlytobravery.Everyyearthekinggavegiftstothemanwiththemostheirs.Becausetheythinkthatmorepeoplearepower.Theirsonwaseducatedbetweentheagesoffiveandtwenty,andtheytaughttheirsononlythreethings:horseriding,archeryandtellingthetruth.Thechildcannotseehisfatherbeforetheageoffive,buthastolivewithhismother.Thereasonforthisisthatoncethechildcannotberaised,thefatherwillnotsufferthepainofthedeadson.

Intermsoftheruleoflaw,thekingcannotputsomeonetodeathbecausehemadeonlyonemistake,andnoPersiancanuseanincurablepenaltytopunishhisservant’sonlysin.Butifaftercalculatingitandseeingthattheoffender’sfaultsaremoreandgreaterthanthegoodthingshehasdone,theownercanpunishhimseverelytoventhisanger.

Anythingtheythinkcannotbedone,theyareabsolutelyforbiddentotalkaboutit.Theyalsobelievethatlyingisthemostdisgracefulthingintheworld,followedbydebt;theyholdthisviewofdebt,therearemanyotherreasons,especiallybecausepeopleindebthavetotelllies.Theyhavegreatrespectfortheriver.

Religion

IslamShia

Note:

IslamShi’aisthestatereligionofIranandtheThetwomajorsects,98.8%oftheresidentsinIranbelieveinIslam,ofwhich91%areShiaand7.8%areSunni.

TheArabictransliterationof"Shiye"means"Party"and"Faction".Alsotranslatedas"TenYeSchool".Shiites,Sunni,Havaligi,andMurgisarethefourmajorpoliticalsectsofearlyIslam,andtheyarethemostpopuloussectinIslamafterSunni.

Shiites(English:Shi'ites)aremainlycharacterizedbysupportingMuhammad’scousin,son-in-lawAliandhisdescendantsasMuslimleadersimams,sotheyarealsocalledAlis.StandupwiththeSunniparty.ThefactiononlyrecognizesAliandhisdescendantsoftheHashemitefamilyasthelegalheirs,andrespectsAliandhisdescendantsas"imams".Mamuhasretiredandwillreappearasthesavior(Mahdi).Later,duetodifferencesininternalopinions,tribessuchastheKesani,theTwelveImams,theZaidists,andtheIsmailischoolsandmanybranchesweresuccessivelydivided.

TheearlyPersians,likeotherIndo-Europeanpeoples,acceptedtheworshipofnatureandbelievedinvariousspiritsandspirits,suchasZoroaster(BC628～BC551)createdZoroastrianism

System

(1)Centralizationofpower

Thecountryisdividedinto20provinces

Thegovernor,thegarrisoncommanderisdirectlyunderthecommandofthemonarch

Establishtheannualtributeofeachprovince

Standardizationofcurrencyandweightsandmeasures

(2)AdoptHuairoupolicy

Accordingtolocalconditionsbelowtheprovince,theconqueredcanretaintheirowncustomsandlawsaslongastheyaccepttheirrule.

RetaintheoriginaladministrativeinstitutionsinEgyptandappearasatraditionalpharaoh

RebuildthetempleinPalestineandassignIsraelielderstotakechargeoforder

RebuildtheBabylonianTempleinMesopotamiatomaintainthepositionofhighpriest

(3)HighEfficienttransportationsystem

RepairtheancientcanalfromtheNileRivertotheRedSea

Createa"royalroad"(chidao)andapostsystemtofacilitateruleandserveasaninterculturalAbridgeofcommunication

(4)CreationNavyandpostalsystem

(5)FengZoroismisthestatereligion

name

Since600BC,theGreekshaveregardedthisOneareaiscalled"Persia".ThefirstwrittenrecordofthePersiansisfromtheAssyriansintheninthcenturyBC,theycalled"Parsuash"and"Parsua"(Parsua).ThesesimilarwordsarederivedfromtheancientIranianword"Parsava",whichprobablymeans"border"and"frontier",andareusedtorefertothePersiansgeographically(theycallthemselvesAryansethnicallytoshowtheirdignity).ParsuaandParsuashuareactuallytwodifferentplaces.ThelatterislocatedinsouthwesternIranandiscalled"Pârsa"(Pârsa,today'sFars)inancientPersian.

TheGreeksusedadjectivessuchas"Perses","Persica"and"Persis"forCyrusinthesixthcenturyBCTheempireofthegreatemperorisderivedfromthePersianinEnglish.InthelatterpartoftheBible,thePersianEmpire(Esther,Daniel,Ezra,andNehemiah)isoftenmentioned,called"Pylas"(English:Paras;Hebrew:פרס),Suchas"ParasveMadai"(פרסומדי)isthe"KingdomofPersiaandtheMedes".Until1935,EuropeansusedPersiatorefertothisregionandthecountrieslocatedinthisregion.FromtheSassaniddynasty,thePersianscalledtheircountryElanShahr,whichmeans"MedievalAryanEmpire".

In1935,PersianKingRezaKhandeclaredthatthecountryshouldbecalled"Iran"internationally.Buttheterm"Persian"isstillusedafterthis.InChinese,"Persian"isusedtodescribeIranbefore1935,orthenameofthispeoplesinceancienttimes,suchasPersianandPersiancarpets.Modernpolitics,economyandotherthingsusetheterm"Iran".