Microchip

Mainfunction

Microchip(sometimesabbreviatedaschip)isapieceofpackagedcomputercircuit(usuallycalledintegratedcircuit),whichismadeofakindofmaterialsuchassilicon.Madeonasmallvolume.Themicrochipisusedtocarryoutprogramlogic(logicormicroprocessorchip)andcomputerstorage(memoryorstorablememory).Microchipsarealsousedtoincludebothlogicandstorage,andmayalsobeusedforspecialpurposes,suchasanalog-to-digitalconversion,bitchips,andgateways.

Inventor

JackKilby(November8,1923-June20,2005)Inourworld,ifthereisaninventionWhatchangedisnotacertainfield,buttheentireworldandtheentireindustrialsystem,thatis,theintegratedcircuitmicrochipinventedbyJack.

OnSeptember12,1958,thiswasthebeginningofagreatmomentwhenTexasInstrumentsengineer'JackKilby'inventedtheworld'sfirstintegratedcircuitICmicrochip.Thisdeviceopenedthepreludetotheelectronicrevolutionofthetwentiethcenturyandatthesametimeannouncedtheadventofthedigitalage.

In2000,hewontheNobelPrizeinPhysics.ThisisaNobelPrizeinPhysicsthathasbeenlateforty-twoyears.Thishonor,becausethelongertheintervalbetweentheawards,themoreprominenthisachievements.Sofar,humancomputers,mobilephones,theInternet,televisions,cameras,VDs,andallelectronicproducts,thecorecomponentsofintegratedcircuits,alloriginatedfromhisinvention.

In1947,exactlytheyearBellLabsannouncedtheinventionofthetransistor,electronicdevicesassembledwithtransistorswerestilltoobulky.Obviously,owningacomputeratthistimeisstillanunattainabledream.Technologyalwaysadvancesdrivenbydreams.In1952,G·W·A·DammeroftheBritishRadarInstitutefirstproposedtheideaof​​anintegratedcircuit:allthetransistors,crystaldiodesandothercomponentsneededbyelectroniccircuitsweremadeonasemiconductorchip.Althoughwecan'ttellfromtheself-reportofJackKilbywhetherthisideahasanyinfluenceonhim,wecanalsofeelthattheconceptofmicroelectronicstechnologyisabouttoburstoutofthethinkingofengineers.Atthattime,Kilby,whowasfocusingoncircuitminiaturizationresearchatTexasInstruments,usedthetwoweeksmostofhiscolleagueswereonvacationwithoutinterruptiontothinkaboutdifficultproblems.JustonemonthafterBellLaboratoriescelebratedthetenthanniversaryoftheinventionofthetransistor,Kilby'sinspirationemergedandhewrotefivepagesofkeyexperimentlogsinhisoffice.Kilby'snewconceptistouseasinglepieceofsilicontomakeacompletecircuit,sothatthecircuitcanbereducedtoaverysmallsize.Atthattime,theindustrydoubtedwhetherthisideawasfeasible."Ihavebroughtentertainmenteffectstomanytechnicalforums,"Kilbydescribedinhisarticle"TheBirthofIntegratedCircuits."In1958,theworld'sfirstintegratedcircuitICmicrochipwasbornunderhisefforts.

Representativeproduct

Thedensityofdevicesonthemicrochiphasreachedthelevelofneurondensityinthehumanbrain.Thislevelofmicrochipswillpromotetheupgradingofthecomputerandcommunicationindustries,greatlychangingtheoutlookofpeople'sproductionandlife.ScientistsarealreadydiscussingthepossibilityofimplantingmicrochipmemorycircuitsinhumanbrainstotreatAlzheimer'sdiseaseortoincreasepeople'smemoryability.Portablesupercomputers,electronicnotebooks,mini-translatorsandportablephonesmadeofmicrochipshaveappearedoneafteranother.

Amicrochipisacomputerizedchipwithanidentificationnumberwritteninabiochemicalglasstubecompatiblewithanimaltissue.Theentiremicrochipisonlythesizeofaricegrain(13mm×2.1mm).Itisinstalledinaneedleinasterilemannerandimplantedintotheanimal'ssubcutaneoustissuebysubcutaneousinjection,whichcanbepermanentlystoredintheanimal'sbody.Itprovidesanimal-safe,accurate,simpleandeconomicalpermanentidentification,andcanprotectpetsfromlosingorstolenidentification.Asetofnumbersthatareneverrepeatedarewrittenonthemicrochip.Whenencounteringlow-energyelectromagneticwavesemittedbythesensor,thesensorwilldisplaythenumberonthechiponthedisplay.Theentiresensereadingprocessonlytakesafewmillionthsofasecondtocomplete.Oncethechipisimplantedinthebody,thechipwillbewrappedintheproteinproducedintheanimal'sbody,andthechipwillbefixedattheimplantationsitethroughoutthelifeofthepet.Thechipwillnotgooutofthebodyorwearout,andthereisnoneedtoreplacetheenergysource.Therefore,evenifitstaysintheanimalbodyfordecades,itwillnotcauseproblems,andtheusefullifefarexceedsthelifespanofmostpets.Animalsofanyagecanbeimplantedwithchips.Youngdogsandcatscanbeimplantedwhentheystartthevaccinationprogram;birds,horsesandotherpetscanbeimplantedatanytime.

Wehavecompiledalistof25integratedcircuits(ICs)here.InthebuildingsbuiltbyJackKilbyandRobertNoyce(note:thetwoaretheinventorsofintegratedcircuits),webelievethattheyshouldbecalledthebest.Someofthemhavebecomeimmortalmonumentsinthehistoryofchipdevelopment.SuchasSigneticsNE555timerofSignetics.Someofthemhavebecomedesignexamplesintextbooks,suchasFairchild'sFairchild741operationalamplifier.Someofthemhavereachedbillionsinsalesandarestillcontinuingtosell,suchasMicrochip'sPICmicrocontrollers.Averysmallpartofthemhascreatedawholenewmarket,suchasToshiba'sflashmemory.Amongthem,atleastonehasbecomeanannoyingthinginpopularculture.Question:WhatkindofprocessorcanpowerthebadrobotBenderintheAmericananimatedseries"Futurama"(Futurama),whoisadrunkardandasmoker.Theansweris:MOSTechnology6502microprocessorfromMostek.

SignitickNE555Timer(1971)

Thatwasthesummerof1970,anditsdesignerHansCamenzindevenRecalloneortwothingsaboutChineserestaurantsatthattime.Inthedowntownareaof​​Sunnyvale,California,thecompanyhasthreeoffices.Camenzind'sofficeissandwichedbetweenthetwoofficesandhasasmallarea.Atthetime,CamenzindwasaconsultantforSignitick,alocalsemiconductorcompany.Camenzindwasnotfinanciallywell-off,withanannualsalaryofnomorethan$15,000,andawifeandfourchildreninthefamily.Camenzindreallyurgentlyneededtoinventsomethingoutstanding.

Ofcoursehedidthesame.Infact,thisisthemostoutstandingmicrochipinhistory.555isasimpleICthatcanbeusedasatimeroroscillator.Thismicrochipbecamethebest-sellingproductofitskind,anditwasquicklyappliedtokitchensupplies,toys,spaceships,andthousandsofotherproductsonalargescale.

Camenzind,now75,isstillworkingonthedesignofmicrochips,buthishomeisnolongerclosetoChineserestaurants.Camenzindrecalled:"Themicrochipwasalmostunsuccessfulatthetime."

Whentheideaof​​designing555wasgerminated,Camenzindwasdesigningasystemcalledaphase-lockedloop.Aftersomemodifications,thecircuitcanworklikeasimpletimer.Yousetthetimeanditwillruninaspecificperiod.Itsoundsverysimple,butitisnotthecase.

Firstofall,theengineeringdepartmentofSigniticrejectedanidea.Becausethecompanywassellingsomepartsatthetime,andcustomerscouldusethesepartsastimers.Thishasbroughtanendtothisidea,butCamenzindhasalwaysinsistedonhisidea.HefoundArtFury,themarketingmanagerofSignetic.Furyappreciatesthisideaverymuch.

Forthis,Camenzindspentnearlyayeartestingtheprototypeofthecircuittestboard,repeatedlyscribingthecircuitonthepaper,andcuttingouttheRubylithmaskingfilm.Camenzindsaid:"Itwasallhandmadeatthetime,therewasnocomputer."Hisfinaldesignhad23transistors,16resistorsand2diodes.

555wasputonthemarketin1971andcausedasensationinthemarketatthattime.SignitickwasacquiredbyPhilipsSemiconductorsin1975,whichisnowNXPSemiconductors.555salesreachedbillionsofunits.Atpresent,engineersarestillusing555todesignsomeusefulmodulesandsomelessusefulthings,suchasdesigningcarlightsinthemovie"KnightRider"styleforthecargrille.

TMC0281SpeechSynthesizerfromTexasInstruments(1978)

WithoutTMC0281,E.T.mayneverbeableto"callhome".ThisisbecauseTMC0281isthefirstsingle-chipspeechsynthesizer,anditisalsothe"heart"ofthe"Speak&Spell"learningtoylaunchedbyTexasInstruments(Shouldwesay"mouth"?).InStevenSpielberg'smovie,aliensuseittobuildtheirowninterplanetarytransmitter(inthemovie,E.T.alsousesahanger,acoffeecan,andacircularsaw).

TMC0281usesatechnologycalledlinearpredictivecodingtotransmitsound,whichsoundslikeaseriesofbuzzing,hissing,andbangingsounds.GeneA.Frantz,thefourengineersoftheyear,isstillatTexasInstruments.Hesaidthatthissurprisingsolutionwasconsidered"impossibletobecompletedbyintegratedcircuits."ImprovedmicrochipsareusedinAtariarcadegamesandChryslerK-cars.In2001,TexasInstrumentssolditsspeechsynthesischipproductionlinetoSensory,whichdiscontinuedtheproductionlineinlate2007.Ifyouneedtomakealong-distanceorlong-distancephonecall,youcanspendabout$50oneBaytobuya"speakandfight"toythatisstillingoodconditiontomeetyourneeds.

MostecMOSTechnology6502Microprocessor

WhenagrotesquepersoninstallsthismicrochiponthecomputerandstartsitAtthecomputer,theentireuniversewasshocked.ThisweirdpersonisoneofthefoundersofApple-StephenWoznick.ThatcomputerisAppleI.Theprocessorusesan8-bitmicroprocessor6502developedbyMostek.ThisprocessorisalsothebrainofclassiccomputerssuchasAppleII,theCommodorePET,BBCMicro,andgamingsystemssuchasNintendoandAtari.ChuckPeddle,oneofthedesignersoftheprocessor,recalledthattheyintroducedtheprocessoratatradeshowin1975.Hesaid:"Wefilledtwoglasseswithchips.MywifeandIweresittingtheresellingthesechips."The6502microprocessorfinallycametothefore.Thereasonisthatthe6502isnotmuchfasterthanitscompetitors,butItspriceischeap,eachsellsfor25dollars,andIntel's8080andMotorola's6800sellforabout200dollars.

BillMensch,whodesignedthe6502withPeddle,saidthatthebreakthroughliesinthecombinationofaminimalinstructionsetandproductionprogram,anditsoutputis10timesthatofothercompetingproducts.The6502forcedthepriceofprocessorstodrop,andcontributedtothepersonalcomputerrevolution.Someembeddedsystemsarestillusingthesechipstoday.Thegreaterinterestmaybethatin"FlyingaFuture",6502isthebrainofthefallenrobotBender.Thisinformationappearedinthe1999plot.

Inthearticle"TheTruthofBender'sBrain",DavidX.Cohen,thefilmproducerandleadauthorof"FlyingAFuture",willexplainwhyhechose6502asBender'sbrain.

TMS32010digitalsignalprocessorofTexasInstruments(1983)

AsalargestateintheUnitedStates,TexashasleftuswithalotofprofoundImpressions,suchasthe"tengallon"cap,friedchickenchop,Dr.Pepperbeverage,andTMS32010digitalsignalprocessor,butcomparedtothefewspecialproductsmentionedabove,theTMS32010digitalsignalprocessormayhavealesserreputation.AlthoughtheTMS32010developedbyTexasInstrumentsisnotthefirstDSP(thefirstDSPwastheDSP-1introducedbyWesternElectricin1980),itisthefastestone.TheTMS32010canperformmultiplicationin200nanoseconds,andengineersareexcitedaboutthisachievement.Inaddition,itcanexecuteinstructionsfromfaston-chipROMandslowoff-chipRAM.ThecompetingproductsonlyhaveDSPfunctions.WandaGass,amemberoftheDSPdesignteam,isstillatTexasInstruments.Hesaid:"ThisadvantagemakesprogramdevelopmentforTMS32010moreflexible,justlikeprogramdevelopmentformicrocontrollersandmicroprocessors."TMS32010ispricedat$500each,and1,000unitsofthisproductweresoldinthefirstyear.Thensalesbegantoskyrocket,andDSPsarenowwidelyusedinmodems,medicalequipment,andmilitarysystems.Oh,thereisanotherapplicationofTMS32010,whichisusedonacutedollthatcansingandtalk.TMS32010isthefirstinthelargeDSPfamily.Inthefuture,theDSPfamilywillcontinuetoexpand,whichisthewealthofTexasInstruments.

ThePIC16C84microcontrollerofMicrochipTechnology(1993)

Intheearly1990s,thefieldof8-bitmicrocontrollerswasdevelopedbyMotorolaOnecompanymonopolizes.Thenasmallcompetitorwithaninconspicuousnameappeared,andthiswasMicrochipTechnology.MicrochipTechnologyhasdevelopedthePIC16C84,whichintegratesamemorycalledEEPROM.Whenerasing,thePIC16C84microcontrollerdoesnotrequireanultravioleteraserlikeitspredecessors.RodDrake,thechiefdesignerofthechip,isnowadirectorofMicrochipTechnology.Hesaid:"Nowuserscanchangetheircodesonthefly."What'sevenbetteristhatthecostofthischipislessthan$5,whichisonlyaquarterofthecostofothercurrentalternativeproducts.ThesealternativeproductsmainlycomefromMotorola.16C84hasbeenusedinsmartcards,remotecontrols,andwirelesscarkeys.16C84becamethebeginningofthefieldofmicrocontrollers,andMicrochipTechnologyhasalsobecomeasuperstarintheelectronicsindustryinthe"Fortune500"list.Atpresent,16C84hassold6billionunits,someofwhichareusedinindustrialcontrollers,unmannedaerialvehicles,digitalpregnancytests,chip-controlledpyrotechnics,LEDjewelryandaseptictankmonitorcalledTurdAlert.

FairchildSemiconductor’sμA741operationalamplifier(1968)

Theoperationalamplifiersareallsiliconboardswithsimilardesigns.Youarealwaysusingsomeofthem.Youcanusetheminalmosteverything,andtheywillcompletesometasksbeautifully.Designersusethemtomakeaudioandvideopreamplifiers,voltagecomparators,accuracycorrectors,andmanyothersystems,whicharepartofeverydayelectronicproducts.

In1963,26-year-oldengineerRobertWidlardesignedthefirstmonolithicoperationalamplifierIC—μA702atFairchildSemiconductor.Atthetime,eachunitwaspricedat$300.Subsequently,WidlardevelopedtheμA709throughanimproveddesign,andthecostwasalsoreducedto70USdollars,whichmadetheproductahugecommercialsuccess.Thestoryishere,Widlar,whosecareerisinfullswing,asksforapromotion.Aftertherequestwasnotmet,Widlarresigned.NationalSemiconductorquicklyhiredWidlarifitgotthetreasure.AtNationalSemiconductor,WidlarhelpedestablishasimilarICdesigndepartment.In1967,Widlardevelopedabetteroperationalamplifier,LM101,forNationalSemiconductor.

AlthoughFairchildSemiconductor’smanagementstaffbecameburntduetothesuddencompetition,inthecompany’sR&Dlaboratory,newlyjoinedDavidFullagarconductedacarefulstudyofLM101.Soon,FullagardiscoveredthatalthoughthedesignofLM101isveryclever,therearestillmanyshortcomings.Inordertoavoidspecificfrequencydistortion,engineershadtoconnectanexternalcapacitortothechip.Inaddition,duetofluctuationsinthequalityofsemiconductors,theinputstageoftheIC,theso-calledfrontend,makessomechipsverysensitivetonoise.

Hesaid:"Thefrontendlooksalittleimprovised."

Fullagarstartedhisowndesign.Heexpandedthesemiconductormanufacturingprocesslimitationsatthetimeandintegrateda30picofaradcapacitorinthechip.Howtoimprovethefrontendnow?Thesolutionisverysimple,addingapairofextratransistors."Atthetime,Ididn'tknowhowtosolvethisproblem.IdrovetoLakeTahoe."Theadditionalcircuitmadetheamplificationsmootherandbecameverystablefromchiptochip.

FullagarbroughthisowndesigntoGordonMoore,directorofR&DatFairchildSemiconductor.Moorethensentthisdesigntothecompany'scommercialdepartment.ThenewchipμA741hasbecomethestandardforoperationalamplifiers.MillionsofICsandsimilarproductsdevelopedbyFairchildSemiconductor’scompetitorshavebeensold.Youcanbuythousandsof741chipstodayatapriceof$300eachforthe702.

Intersil'sICL8038WaveformGenerator(1983)

CriticshavealwaysmockedICL8038foritslimitedperformanceandirregularoperation.Thisorthodox,right-angle,triangular,sawtooth,andpulsewaveformgeneratorisdefinitelyabitunreliable.Butengineersquicklyfiguredouthowtousethischipreliably,andthenthe8038achievedgreatsuccess.Intheend,the8038soldmillionsofunitsandfounditsownapplicationincountlessapplications.Forexample,thefamousMoogmusicsynthesizer,aswellasthe"bluebox"ofthetelephonecompanythatwasdefeatedbythosewhomisappropriatedcircuitlinesinthe1980s,andsoon.8038issopopularthatIntersilhaspublishedadocumenttitled"EverythingYouHaveAlwaysWantedtoKnowAboutICL8038".Thereissuchaquestion:"Whycantheconnectingpins7to8getthebesttemperatureperformance?"Intersilgaveupthe8038in2002.However,enthusiastsarestillcollectingICL8038tomaketheirowngeneratorsandTaylorMingelectronicpianos.

Currently,thepublicrelationsdepartmentofIntersilandtheengineerswhowerelastincontactwithICL8038donotknowtheexactdataofICL8038.Didyouknow?

WesternDigital’sWD1402AUART(1971)

Inthe1960s,GordonBellTheequipmentcompanyisfamousforlaunchingthePDPseriesofminicomputers.Littleisknownabouthisdiscovery,butthereisatechnologicalinventionofgreatsignificance:UniversalAsynchronousReceiver/Transmitter,orUART.BellneedstoconnectsomecircuitstotheteletypewriterandPDP?1,whichneedstoconvertparallelsignalsintocontinuoussignals,andviceversa.Toachievethisgoal,heusedabout50discretecomponents.Asasmallcompanythatmakescalculatorchips,WesternDigitalinventedthesingle-chipUART.AlPhillips,thefounderofWesternDigital,recalledthatatthattimehisvicepresidentofengineeringshowedhimthedesignwithRubylithmaskingfilm,whichwasalreadyequippedandprocessed.Phillipssaid:"Iwatchedthedesignforaminuteandrecognizedanexposedcircuit.Thevicepresidentwasalittleexcited."WesternDigitallaunchedtheWD1402Aaround1971,andotherversionsweresoonfollowed.UARTsarecurrentlywidelyusedinmodems,PCperipherals,andotherdevices.

AcornComputerCompany’sARM1processor(1985)

Intheearly1980s,AcornComputerCompanywasasmallcompanywithanimportantproductcompany.ThecompanyislocatedinCambridge,England.Intheend,BBCMicroDesktopComputerCompanyacquiredAcornComputerCompanyfor$1.5million.TheengineersatAcorndecidedtodeveloptheirown32-bitmicroprocessor.EngineerscallitAcornRISCMachineorARM.TheyknowthatARM'sdesignisnoteasy.Infact,halfofthempredictthattheywillencounterinsurmountabledesignobstaclesandwilleventuallyhavetoabandontheentireproject.ARM'sco-designerSteveFurberisnowaprofessorofcomputerengineeringattheUniversityofManchester.Hesaid:"Thesizeoftheteamisverysmall,sothateverydesigndecisionisverysimple,otherwisewewillneverbeabletocompleteit."Intheend,simplicitybroughtanunprecedenteddifference.ARMisverysmall,lowpowerconsumption,andeasytoprogram.SophieWilson,whowasinchargeofdesigningtheinstructionset,stillrememberswhentheyfirsttestedthechiponacomputer.Shesaid:“Whenweentered'PRINTPI'attheprompt,itimmediatelygavethecorrectanswer.Weopenedseveralbottlesofchampagnetocelebrate.”In1990,AcornspunofftheARMdivision.TheARMarchitecturehasbecomethemainstream32-bitembeddedprocessor.Approximatelymorethan10billionARMprocessorsarewidelyusedinvariousdevices,includingoneofApple'smostwell-knownfailedproducts,Newton,andApple'smostproudproduct,iPhone.

KodakKAF-1300imagesensor(1986)

WhentheKodakDCS100digitalcamerawaslaunchedin1991,thepricewasashighas$13,000anditneededtoweighupto5kg.Forthis,usershavetocarrythemontheirshoulders.Whatdousersthinkofthisdesign?ThisisnotKodak'swonderfulmoment.However,thecameraelectronicsatthetimewasthebodyoftheNikonF3,whichincludedsuchahardware:achiponlythesizeofathumbnail,whichwasabletocaptureimageswitharesolutionof1.3millionpixels,whichwasenoughtomeasure5×7inches.Thesizeisrinsed.EricStevens,themaindesignerofthischip,isstillatKodak.Stevenssaid:"Atthetime,1millionpixelswasadreamnumber."Thischip,atruetwo-phasecharge-coupleddevice,becamethebasisofthefutureCCDsensor,anditsappearancealsohelpedtriggerthedigitalphotographyrevolution.Bytheway,whatwasthefirstphototakenbyKAF-1300?Stevensreplied:"Well,weaimedthesensoratthewallofthelaboratory."

IBMDeepBlueNo.2ChessChip(1997)

Ononesideofthechessboardisahumanbrainweighing1.5kilograms.Ontheothersideisa480chesschip.In1997,humansfinallylosttocomputers.Atthattime,IBM'schesscomputerDeepBluedefeatedthethenworldchampionGaryKasparov.EachchipofDeepBlueconsistsof1.5milliontransistorsarrangedinaspecialway,asaresomeRAMsandROMs.Thesechipscancalculate20billionmovespersecond.Duringthegame,peoplecametohelpDeepBluedecide,andKasparovcalledthem"notlikecomputers."ThedesignerofDeepBlue,Feng-hsiungHsu,whonowworksatMicrosoft,recalled:"Theyexposedalotofpsychologicalpressure."

TransmetaCrusoeProcessor(2000)

Highpowerisaccompaniedbyhugeheatsinks,shortbatterylife,andcrazypowerconsumption.Therefore,Transmeta’sgoalistodesignalow-powerprocessorthatdwarfsIntelandAMDprocessors.Theirplanisthatthesoftwarecantranslatex86instructionsintoCrusoe'sownmachinecode.Thesehigherlevelsofparallelismwillsavetimeandpower.Crusoeisknownasthegreatestinventionsinceintegratedcircuits,atleasttemporarily.ThetitleusedonthecoveroftheMay2000issueofIEEESpectrumis"EngineeringWizardsDevelopedaGoldenProcessor".DavidDitzel,theco-founderofTransmetaandcurrentlyatIntel,said:"CrusoeandhissuccessorEfficeonprovedthatdynamicbinarydecodingiscommerciallyviable."Hesaid,unfortunately,beforethelow-powercomputermarketappeared.,Thesechipshavebeenaroundforseveralyears.Intheend,althoughTransmetafailedtofulfilltheirpromise,theyforcedIntelandAMDtoreducepowerconsumption.

TexasInstrumentsDigitalMicromirrorChip(1987)

OnJune18,1999,LarryHornbeckhadadatewithhiswifeLaura.Theywatchedthemovie"StarWarsEpisodeOne:PhantomCrisis"atamovietheaterinBurbank,California.HornbeckisnotafanofJedi.Thereasonisthatthereisarealprojectorthere.ThisprojectorusesachipdevelopedbyHornbeckatTexasInstruments-adigitalmicromirrorchip.Thischipusestensofthousandsofmicroscopicmirrorshingedtogethertoshootlightthroughtheprojectorlens.Hornbecksaid:"Thisscreeningisthefirstdigitaldisplayofamajormovie."Nowinthousandsoftheaters,movieprojectorsareusingthisdigitallightprocessingtechnologyorDLPdevelopedbyTexasInstruments.ThistechnologyisalsousedinrearprojectionTVsandofficeprojectors.Hornbecksaid:"Gentlemen,thiseffectiscreatedbyamicromirror."

Intel8088Microprocessor(1979)

ThereisnooneCanthechipbringInteltotheFortune500list?Intelwillsayyes,thatis8088.Thisisa16-bitCPU,IBMuseditastheCPUofitsownuniquePCproductionlineatthetime,andthen8088ruledthedesktopcomputermarket.

Inthevortexoffate,thisprocessorbasedonthefamousx86architecturedoesnothave"86".The8088isjustaslightmodificationbasedonIntel’sfirst16-bitCPU,the8086.AfterIntelengineerStephenMorselaunchedit,the8088wascalledthe"8086castratedversion."Sincethemaininnovationofthenewchipisnotinthename,itsinnovationliesinthatthe8088processesdatain16-bitwords,butitusesItisthetotalrouteof8-bitexternaldata.

Asthe8086designwasnearingcompletion,Intelmanagerskeptthe8088projectstrictlyconfidential.PeterA.Stoll,themainengineerofthe8086project,alsoparticipatedinsomeofthedesignworkofthe8088.Hesaid:"Themanagementdoesn'tevenwanttodelay8086foroneday.Theyareafraidtotellusthattheyhavemadechangesto8088intheirmindsthatwillaffectthecompletiontimeof8086.Oneday'staskforcesustosolvethemicrocodethatusedtotakethreedaystosolve.Vulnerability."

Afterthefirst8086waslaunched,thatis,afterIntelshipped8086exhibitsanddocumentstoadesigndepartmentinIsrael,twoengineersRafiRetterandDanyStardecidedtochangetheprocessorto8-bitbus.

Intel'sRobertNoyceandTedHoffstatedinanarticlewrittenforthe"IEEEMicro"magazinein1981thatthischangeprovedtobeIntel'smostsuccessfuldecision.Incomparison,the8088integratedwith29000transistorsrequireslesstransistordata,whichischeaperthanthe8086.Itprovidesfasterprocessingspeedandisfullycompatiblewith8-bithardware,andcanbesmoothlyconvertedto16-bit.processor.

ThefirstPCtouse8088isIBM's5150.ThisPCwaspricedat$3,000.NowallPCswithCPUsintheworldcanregardthe8088asanancestor.Thisisnotbadforacastratedchip.

TheMAS3507MP3decoderofWeikaiSemiconductor(1997)

BeforetheiPod,DiamondRioPMP300appeared.PMP300waslaunchedin1998,andimmediatelysoldhotonceitwaslaunched.ButitdiesfasterthanMilliVanilli.However,thisplayerhasastrikingfeatureistheuseofMAS3507MP3decoderchip.ThisisaRISC-baseddigitalsignalprocessorwithaninstructionsetthatcanoptimizeaudiocompressionanddecompression.TheMAS3507MP3decoderchipdevelopedbyWeikaiSemiconductorallowsRiotoloadseveralsongsintoitsownflashmemory.Itseemsabitfunnytoday,butitwasenoughtocompetewithportableCDplayersatthetime.Hehe,isn'titinteresting?RioanditssuccessorspavedthewayfortheiPod.Nowyoucanholdthousandsofsongs,andevenyoucanholdallthealbumsandmusicvideosofMilliVanilliintoyourpocket.MostekMK40964kilobitDRAM(1973)

MostekisnotthefirstcompanytolaunchDRAM,Intelhasalsolaunchedit.ButMostek's4kilobitDRAMchiphasanimportantinnovation,whichiscalledthecircuitdesignofaddressmultiplexingtechnology.ThistechnologywasdesignedbyBobProebsting,co-founderofMostek.Basically,throughmultipleaddressingsignals,thischipcanusethesamepinstoaccessrowsandcolumnsofmemory.Thismakesthechipdonotneedmorepinsafterthememorydensityincreases,sothatthecostcanbereduced.Therewillbeminorcompatibilityissueshere.4096uses16pins,whilememorymadebyTexasInstruments,Intel,andMotorolauses22pins.InthehistoryofDRAM,whatisafterthislargestconfrontation?

Mostechasbetitsfutureonthechip,anditsmanagershavebeguntotreatcustomers,partners,newsmediaandtheirownEmployeeslobbied.FredK.Beckhusen,whohadjustbeenhiredatthetime,wasarrangedtotestthe4096device.Beckhusenrecalledthatatthattime,ProebstingandCEOL.J.Sevincametohisnightshiftatabout2amtodiscusswithhim.Beckhusensaid:"Theyboldlypredictedthatwithinsixmonths,noonewouldhearorpayattentionto22-pinDRAM."Theywerecorrect.4096anditssuccessorshavegraduallybecomethemainstreamofDRAM.XilinxXC2064FPGA(FieldProgrammableGateArray)Intheearly1980s,chipdesignershavebeentryingtoplaytheroleofeverytransistorinthecircuit.However,RossFreemanhasaratherradicalideaaboutthis.Hedesignedachipfulloftransistors,whicharelooselyorganizedintologicunits.Theselogicunitscanbeconfiguredinturnorreconfiguredthroughsoftware.Sometimes,manytransistorsarenotused.However,FreemanbelievesthatMoore'sLawwilleventuallymaketransistorsreallycheaper.Hewasright.InordertosellchipscalledFieldProgrammableGateArraysorFPGAs,Freemanco-foundedXilinx.Thecompany'sfirstproduct,theXC2064,waslaunchedin1985,whenemployeeswereassignedatask:theyhadtomanuallydrawasamplecircuitusingtheXC2064logicunit,justlikeXilinxcustomers.BillCarter,theformerCTOofXilinx,recalledthetaskassignedbyCEOBernieVonderschmitt:"Heencounteredsomeminordifficultiesindoingthishomework."Carterisveryhappytohelphisboss.Hesaid:"Weareallthere,holdingcoloredpencilsanddoingtasksassignedbyBernieonpaper."Today,FPGAssoldbyXilinxandothercompaniesareusedinmanyoftheproductsonthislist.

ZiglowZ80Microprocessor(1976)

FedericoFagginclearlyknowstheenergyandmoneyspentonsellingmicroprocessors.DuringIntel,hecontributedtotheoriginal4004and8080designsoftwoclassicproducts.Whenheco-foundedZieglowwithhisformerIntelcolleagueRalphUngermann,theydecidedtostartdesigningasimplerchip:asingle-chipmicrocontroller.

FagginandUngermannrentedanofficeinLosAltos,California,begantodraftabusinessplan,andbegantoseekcapital.FagginrecalledthattheyhadlunchatanearbysupermarketcalledSafeway,andlunchwas"Camembertcheeseandbiscuits."

Engineerssoondiscoveredthatthemicroprocessormarketwasfullofalargenumberofwell-designedchips.Eveniftheirchipsarebetterthanothercompanies,theycanonlygetmeagerprofits,andtheycanonlycontinuetoeatcheeseandbiscuits.Zieglowhadtofocusonthehigherlevelsofthefoodchain.ItcanbesaidthatthisishowtheZ80microprocessorprojectwasborn.

Theirgoalistodobetterthan8080,andcanbefullycompatiblewith8080software,inordertoattractcustomerstogiveupIntel.Forseveralmonths,Faggin,Ungermann,andformerIntelengineerMasatoshiShimaworked80hoursaweekatthedesktodrawtheZ80circuit.Fagginsoondiscoveredthatwhendesigningmicrochips,althoughthesmallerthemorebeautiful,itwillhurttheeyes.

Hesaid:"Intheend,Ihadtowearglasses.Ibecamemyopia."

Theentiredesignteamworkedfrom1975to1976.InMarchof1976,theycompletedaprototypechip.Z80andMostek's6502areproductsofthesameera.Like6502,theirsuccessisnotonlythedesignthatappeared,butalsothelowprice(approximately$25).Bringingproductstothemarketbroughtthemalotofconfidence.Faggin,whohadastomachulcerintheend,said:"Thatwasanexcitingtime."

Thesaleswerefinallysuccessful.Z80isusedinthousandsofproducts,includingOsborneI(theoriginatorofportablecomputers),RadioShackTRS80andMSXhomecomputers.Inaddition,therearealsoZ80sonprinters,faxmachines,photocopiers,modems,andsatellites.ZieglowalsousesZ80insomeembeddedsystems.Inabasicconfiguration,thepriceoftheZ80todayis$5.73,whichisevencheaperthanacheeseandbiscuitlunch.

SunMicrosystemsSPARCprocessor(1987)

Manyyearsago(about(Early1980s)Whenpeoplewerestillwatching"Dallas"inneon-coloredlegthermalsuits,microprocessordesignerscouldseektoincreasethecomplexityofCPUinstructionstogetbetterresultsineachcomputingcycle.Morecalculations.TheteamattheUniversityofCalifornia,Berkeleyhasalwaysbeenanti-traditionalpioneers,andtheirformulationisjusttheopposite.Theyproposedasimplifiedinstructiongroup.Theybelievethatprocessinginstructionstoofastwillresultinfewerbehaviorsineachcycle.TheBerkeleyteamledbyDavidPattersonproposedRISC,whichisareducedinstructionsetcomputer.

Asapurelyconceptualresearch,RISCsoundsveryattractive.Butisitfeasible?SunMicrosystemsbetonthis.In1984,asmallteamofSunengineersbegantodevelopa32-bitRISCprocessor(thatis,ascalableprocessingarchitecture)calledSPARC.Sunintendstousethischipinanewworkstationproductline.Patterson,consultantoftheSPARCproject,recalled:"OnedaytheCEOScottMcNealyreappearedinSPARC'sR&Dlaboratory.HesaidthatSPARCcanincreasethecompany'sannualrevenueof500millionUSdollarstobillionsofUSdollarsperyear."/p>

Atthattime,R&Dwasundergreatpressure,andmanypeopleoutsidethecompanyexpresseddoubtsaboutSun’ssuccess.What'sworseisthatSun'smarketingteamhasaterribleperception:SPARCisturningforthebetter.Forthisreason,theR&DteamhadtovowednottodisclosetheinformationtootherpersonnelorevenSuninternalpersonnel,soasnottoleaktheinformationtothecompetitorMIPSTechnologies.Atthattime,MIPSTechnologieswasalsoexploringtheconceptofRISC.

RobertGarner,wholedthedesignofSPARCatthetimeandacurrentIBMresearcher,recalledthatthefirstminimumversionofSPARCconsistedof20,000gatearrayprocessors,whichdidnotevenhavemultiplication/divisioninstructions.At10millioninstructionspersecond,thiswasthreetimesfasterthanthecomplexinstructionsetcomputer(CISC)processorsofthetime.

SundecidedtouseSPARCforhigh-profitworkstationsandserversthatwillappearinthefuture.ThefirstSPARC-basedproductwaslaunchedin1987astheSun-4seriesworkstation.Thisproductquicklyoccupiedthemarketandhelpedthecompanybreakthroughthe$1billionrevenuemark.AllthisisexactlyasMcNealypredicted.

TripathTechnologyTA2020AudioAmplifier

Somepeopleamonghigh-fidelityaudioenthusiastsinsistthatvacuumtube-basedamplifierscanproducethebestsound,andKeepgoing.Sowhensomeaudioassociationsannouncedthatthesolid-stateClassDamplifierdesignedbytheSiliconValleycompanyTripathTechnologycoulddeliveraroundandvibratingsoundlikeavacuumtubeamplifier,itseemedextraordinary.Tripathisdesignedtousea50-megahertzsamplingsystemtodrivetheamplifier.TripathclaimsthatTA2020'sperformanceisexcellentandthepriceislowerthananysolid-stateamplifierofthesamelevel.Inordertoshowcasethisproductatthetradefair,TripathfounderAdyaTripathisaid:"Weplayedaromanticepisodefrom"Titanic"specially."ComparedwithmostD-classamplifiers,2020isveryefficient.Sincenoheatsinkisrequired,acompactappearancecanbeused.Tripath’slow-end15-wattversionoftheTA2020ispricedat$3andcanbeusedinexternalspeakersandminiheadphones.

AmatiCommunications'ADSLchip(1994)

RememberthataftertheadventofDSL,youthrewthesqueaky56.6kmodemintothetrashcanThescenario?Youandtwo-thirdsofglobalbroadbanduserswhouseDSLshouldthankAmatiCommunications.Inthe1990s,aDSLmodulationmethodcalledDiscreteMulti-Tone,orDMT,appeared.Itsbasicprincipleistotreatatelephonelineasachannelconsistingofhundredsofsub-channels,andtoimprovetransmissionthroughtheinvertedRobinHoodstrategy.JohnM.Cioffi,co-founderofAmatiandnowaprofessorofengineeringatStanfordUniversity,said:“Bitswererobbedbythepoorestchannelsandassignedtotherichestchannels.”DMTdefeatedmanysolutionsandbecametheglobalstandardforDSL.,IncludingplansfromtelecomgiantAT&T.Inthemid-1990s,salesofAmati'sDSLchipsets(oneanalogandtwodigital)weremediocre.Butby2000,salessoaredtomillions.Intheearly2000s,ayear'ssalesofchipsetsexceeded100million.In1997,TexasInstrumentsacquiredAmati.

MotorolaMC68000Microcontroller(1979)

SinceMotorolaisatadisadvantagein16-bitmicroprocessors,theydecidedtocatchuponthetype..Themixed16-bit/32-bitMC68000has68,000transistors,whichistwicethenumberofIntel8086.MC68000alsohasaninternal32-bitregister,butthepriceofthisproductissomewhathigherduetothe32-bitbus.Sothe68000uses24-bitaddressand16-bitdatalines.The68000maybethelastimportantprocessordesignedonpaperwithapencil.NickTredennick,thedesignerofthe68000logicunit,said:“Iletthereduced-sizecopiesofflowcharts,executionunitresources,decoders,andcontrollogicbecirculatedamongprojectmembersinturn.”Thecopiesareverysmallanddifficulttoread.Forthisreason,Tredennick'sbad-eyedcolleaguefoundawaytoseethecopyclearly.Tredennickrecalled:"OnedayIenteredmyofficeandfoundacreditcard-sizedcopyofaflowchartonmydesk."EarlyMacintoshcomputers,AmigaandAtariSTallused68000.Alargeamountofsalescomesfromembeddedapplicationsinlaserprinters,arcadegameconsolesandindustrialcontrollers.IBMuses68000asthechipofitsownPCproductline.Because68000stillhasshortcomingsinsomeaspects,IBMisalsousingIntel's8088chip.Asoneobserversaid,theprosperityofMotorolaturnedtheWintelsystemformedbythejointmonopolyofMicrosoftandIntelintotheWinolasystem.

Chips&Technologies’ATchipset(1985)

In1984,whenIBMlaunchedthe80286ATproductionlineofPCs,IBMHavingclearlybecomethewinnerofthedesktopcomputer,IBMalsointendstocontinuetomaintainitsdominance.However,theseBigBlueplansweredefeatedbyasmallcompanycalledChips&TechnologiesinSanJose,California.C&ThasdevelopedfivechipsthatcanreplicatethefunctionsofATmotherboards,whichcanuseabout100chips.TomakesurethatthesechipsetsarecompatiblewithIBMPCs,C&Tengineersfoundthatonlyonethingneedstobedone.Themaindesignerofthechip,RaviBhatnagar,iscurrentlythevicepresidentofSanJoseAltierre.Hesaid:"Wedidn'tbotheraboutit,wejustplayedgamesforweekstotestthroughentertainmenttasks."C&T'schipsallowmanufacturerssuchasTaiwan'sAcertoproducecheaperPCs,andinitiatedtoIBMInvasionofPCcompatiblemachines.IntelacquiredC&Tin1997.

ComputerCowboys'Sh-Boomprocessor(1988)

Twochipdesignerscametoabar.TheyareRussellH.FishIIIandChuckH.Moore,andthisbarisSh-Boom.Oh,thisisnotajoke.Infact,thistechnicallegendisfullofdiscordandlawsuits,alotoflawsuits.Itallstartedin1988whenFishandMooredesignedaprocessorcalledSh-Boom.Thedesignofthischipisveryadvanced,anditisevenfasterthanthetimeronthecircuitboardthatdrivestherestofthecomputer.Tothisend,thetwodesignersfoundawaytolettheprocessorrunitsownultra-fastinternaltimer,whileatthesametime,theinternaltimerwasstillsynchronizedwiththerestofthecomputer.Sh-Boomhasneverachievedcommercialsuccess.Afterapplyingforapatentfortheirdesign,MooreandFishcontinuedtoengageinresearchanddevelopment.