Likemanyinventors,thereasonthatpromptedhimtoworkhardtoexplorewaspoverty.GutenbergreturnedtohishometownandmetamannamedFresde.Thismanhimselfhadnoaccomplishments,buthisnamegoesdowninhistory.Hebelongstoakindofinsatiable,simple-minded,butveryrichperson.
Atthattime,thesituationwaslikethis.Atthebeginningofcreativeinnovation,theworkwasnotprogressingfast,buttheinventorwasalreadyimpoverishedanddebt-ridden.Thelocalrichmansuedhim.Althoughthelocalrichhimselfbreachedthecontractanddidnotpaythemoneyontime,hestillwonthelawsuit.ThejudgeruledthattheGutenbergtypesettingmachinewasgiventothelocalrichman.Ifitweren'tforthechurchinMainztomediate,theinventormighthavebeendestroyed.
Becauseatthattime,itcouldnotbeotherorganizationsorindividuals,andonlythechurchwouldbethefirsttodiscoverthesignificanceofthisinfinitelypowerfulnewinventionanditsthreattothechurch.TheinventorandhistypesettingmachineshouldbesenttotheKingofYama.Isn'titjustinthesesmallletters,thesewoodenframes,andtheblackinkthattherearedemonicpowerslurking?Butthechurchbecamethefirstusersofthisnewinvention.ThefirstdocumentsprintedpersonallybytheinventorwhobroughtnewlightweretheAtonementsoftheDarkAges.Thechurchagreedtousemoneytoatonefortheirsins.
Likeamythicalstory,itissaidthatadistantandlegendaryprince,theKingofCyprus,isgatheringallhisfollowersagainsttheTurkishpagans.Onlyinthiswaycanhepreservetheislandheinherited.Inordertofinanciallysupporttheprinceinthewar,thebishopaskedtheagenttodistributetheseatonementnotestoallpartsofthecountry.Germanagentsfeelthatprintingismuchfasterthanhandwriting.Withthismethod,hundredsofcopiescanbeprintedinjustafewhours.Anyonewhofeelsguiltycanimmediatelybespirituallyliberated,aslongastheyarewillingtopay.
JohnGutenbergisoftenreferredtoastheinventorofprinting.Infact,hiscontributionistoinventtheprintingpressofmovabletypeprinting,sothatavarietyoftextmaterialscanbeprintedquicklyandaccurately.Noneofthecompletelysuccessfulinventionscomesfromthewisdomofoneperson,andofcourseprintingisthesame.Peoplehaveusedsealsandsealringsthatworkonthesameprincipleasstereotypeprintingsinceancienttimes.ManycenturiesbeforeGutenberg,theChineseknewaboutstereotypeprinting,andbooksprintedin868werefoundinthecountry.BeforeGutenberg,Westernersalsoknewaboutstereotypeprinting,andstereotypeprintingcouldmakeonebookprintedintomanyvolumes.Butthismethodhasabigflaw,thatis,printingeverynewbookrequiresanewsetofwoodcutsorprintingplates,soitisimpracticaltopublishawiderangeofbooks.
AlthoughmovabletypeprintinghasappearedinChinahundredsofyearsago,ithasnotbeenpopular.Therefore,modernmovabletypeprintingmainlycomesfromGutenberg'sinvention.From1434to1444GutenberglivedinStrasbourg,whereheopenedacompany.In1439hemademanymetalmirrorsforthepilgrimagetoAachen,butduetotheoutbreakofplagueinAachen,thepilgrimagewaspostponedto1440.HisclientfeltthattheyhadbeendeceivedbyGutenberg,sobothpartieswenttocourt.
OnlyfewofGutenberg’slifeareexactlyknown.Themostimportantthingintheprocessofhisinventionofprintingwasthatheeffectivelycombinedmanydifferenttechnologiesknownatthetime.Inaddition,hisexperienceincastingmirrorsinStrasbourgalsoprovidedgoodconditionsforhisinvention.Hedevelopedspecialalloysandcastingmethodsasletters.Inthiswayhebuiltasetofalphabetlibraries,withwhichheprintedhisfamous"GutenbergBible"andsomeothersecretariesanddocuments.
Beforesettinguphisprintingplant,hehadtorunaroundtoprepareforthefund.Heborrowedahighdebtfromalocalbusinessman,JohannesFoster,toruntheprintingfactory.Thetwobrokeupbeforethecourtduetodisagreementsonhowtodistributetheprofitsandhowtonametheirjointcompany.GutenberghiredPeterSerfaasthehostoftheprintinghouse,andSerfamadehisprintinghousethefirstcommercialandprofitableprintinghouse.Atotalofabout180copiesofthe"GutenbergBible"havebeenprinted,ofwhich49arestillinusetoday.Accordingtocontemporaryresearch,hemadealotofmoneywiththispatent.
Whenhewasaboutsixtyyearsold,Gutenbergwasstillasingleman,becausehespentallhistimecreatingandinventing.HewascalledtomeettheArchbishopofNassau,andhewasagreedtocompletewhathehadalreadystarted:publishingtheGermanBible.
Thosewhohaveseenthisfirst42-line"Bible"in1455(oneofthefeworiginaleditionsthatexistisstillondisplayinNewYork.Itistooheavytoholdandmustbeputonhold.Readingonthereadingstage)areallsurprised,becausetheyimagineitwillbeascumbersomeasthefirststeamengineorthefirstcar,butwhattheyseetodayisquiteabeautifulwork.Ithasbeenhand-operatedbymonasteriesforcenturies,butincontemporarytimesithasbeenbeautifullyprintedonloose-leafpaper.Theproblemencounteredbyletterengraversandcasterswashowtobindtheseloose-leafpapersmorebeautifullyandconveniently.
Outstandingcontribution
PeopleoftensaythatGutenberg'smaincontributionistheinventionofmovabletype.Infact,movabletypewasinventedinChinaasearlyasthemiddleoftheeleventhcentury,andthenameoftheinventorwasBiSheng.Themovabletypeheinventedwasmadeofceramics,whichhadpoordurability,butotherChineseandKoreansmadeaseriesofimprovementstoit.TheKoreansusedmetalmovabletypelongbeforeGutenberg.Intheearly15thcentury,theNorthKoreangovernmentfundedafoundrytoundertaketheproductionofmovabletypeprinting.
Modernprintinghasfourmaincomponents.Thefirstismovabletypeanditspositioningmethod;thesecondistheprintingpressitself;thethirdissuitableink;thefourthissuitablematerials,suchasprintedpaper.ThepaperinventedbyCaiLuninChinawasintroducedtotheWestlongbeforeGutenberginventedmovabletypeprinting.ForGutenberg,paperisareadilyavailablecomponentinprinting.Althoughtheotherthreecomponentshavealreadydoneacertainamountofwork,theystillneedhimtomakemanyimportantimprovements.
Inthe15thcentury,differentclassesinGermanybegantocryoutforknowledge,demandingtobreakthemonopolyofknowledgebytheCatholicChurch.Urbancitizensandfarmersinvillagesandtownsdemandtolearnmoreknowledge,tounderstandGodandtheworld,notjustwhattheCatholicChurchgivesthem.Priortothis,allbookswerehandmadebymonks,andthenumberwasextremelylimited.Nowadays,inthecityhallunderthesolemntowerandinthesolemnuniversityclassrooms,theillusionofdemocracypermeateseverycorner.Tothisend,Gutenbergbegantodevotehimselftotheinventionandresearchofmovabletypeprinting.
Forexample,heinventedametalalloysuitableformakingmovabletype,amoldthatcanaccuratelypourmovabletype,amimeographinkandaprintingmachine.
ButGutenberg'sentirecontributiongoesfarbeyondanyofhisspecificinventionsorinnovations.Hebecameanimportantpersonmainlybecausehecombinedalltheseprintingcomponentsintoaneffectiveproductionsystem,becauseprinting,unlikeallpreviousinventions,isbasicallyalarge-scaleproductionprocess.Arifleisnaturallyamorelethalweaponthanabowandarrow,butaprintedcopyisindistinguishablefromamanuscriptintermsofeffect,sothesuperiorityofprintingliesinmassproduction.WhatGutenbergcreatedisnotasmallaccessory,asmallinstrument,orevenaseriesoftechnologicalinnovations,butacompleteproductionprocess.
Gutenbergusesmetalletterstoarrangethemintoprintedpages.Thebrandnewthingaboutthismethodisthattheseletterscanbereused.Theoldwoodcutbasecannotbereused.Theycanonlybeengravedonit.It’snotpossibletoprintotherpages.Untilmoderntimes,Gutenberg'sBiblewasregardedasatreasureintheartofprinting.Gutenberg'sinventionspreadveryquicklyinEurope.In50years,30,000printedmaterialshavebeenprintedusingthisnewmethod,totalingmorethan12millionprintedmaterials.ThelettersusedbyGutenbergconsistofalloysoflead,zinc,andothermetals.Theycooldownveryquicklyandcanwithstandthepressureofprinting.Theprintingitselfusesarotatingshaftprintingmethod,whichisprintedonpaperandparchment.
Influenceofcharacters
Developmentofprinting
ComparingthesubsequentdevelopmentofChinaandEurope,itwillbetoacertainextentLearnaboutGutenberg'sinfluenceonworldhistory.AtthetimeofGutenberg'sbirth,thetechnologicaldevelopmentsinthesetworegionswereroughlyequal.However,afterGutenberginventedmodernprinting,Europedevelopedveryrapidly,whileChinacontinuedtouseblockprintingforalongperiodoftime,anditsprogresswasrelativelyslow.Tosaythattheonlyfactorthatcausesthisdifferenceisthatthedevelopmentofprintingmaybeabitexcessive,butitisindeedanimportantfactor.
Itisalsoworthnotingthatonly32ofthe100celebritiesthathaveinfluencedthecourseofhumanhistorylivedbeforeGutenberg,and67peoplelivedinthe500yearsafterhisdeath.ThisshowsthatGutenberg'sinventionisanimportantfactorininspiringrevolutionarydevelopment-andmayevenbeadecisivefactor.
ItseemssafetosaythatevenwithoutAlexanderGrahamBell,thetelephonewouldhavebeeninventedataboutthesametime,andthesamewastrueformanyotherinventions.ButwithoutGutenberg,theinventionofmodernprintingcouldbedelayedformanygenerations.Judgingfromtheoverwhelminginfluenceofprintingonlaterhistory,Gutenbergcertainlyshouldberankedamongthetop100peopleinfluencingthecourseofhumanhistory.
Printingandgunpowder
Thefoggraduallydisappeared.Inthedayswhenthedarkcloudscleared,peoplesawarayoflightthroughthefog.Isthisthedawnofanewcentury?Thisisamorningstarthatwillpushthenewcenturytocomeassoonaspossible.
Inthe15thcentury,differentclassesinGermanybegantocryoutforknowledge,demandingtobreakthemonopolyofknowledgebythespecialclassesofthechurch.Mysticsrequireincreasedintuitionandspeculation,notunderstanding;heathensrequireknowledgeandunderstanding,notjustprayer.Germaniscommonlyusedinlawsandvariousdocuments.CitizensandfarmersdemandedtolearnmoreknowledgeandtounderstandGodandtheworld,notjustwhatthechurchgavethem.Inthecityhallunderthesolemntowerandinthesolemnuniversityclassrooms,democraticillusionspermeatedeverycorner.Priortothis,allbookswerehandmadebymonks,andthenumberwasextremelylimited.Thetimeforreformisripe.Atfirst,someonecarved1,400picturesonwoodandmetal,andthenusedittoprint.Peopledeeplyfeelthatifthesewoodandmetalcanbemadeintomovabletype,itwouldbegreat!Thiscanbeprintedquicklyandinexpensively.Atthismoment,ayoungmaninStrasbourgwasreadytoanswerthisquestion.
Gutenbergonlyprintedabout200"Bibles",48ofwhichhavebeenpreservedtothepresentday,including20copies.Theyarealldifferentbecausethecraftsmenatthattimedecoratedthepagesofthebookindifferentways.TheRansomCenterbookisdecoratedwithgoldleavesandhastwovolumeswith1,268pages.Oramestimatesitisworth20millionU.S.dollars.
Untilthe1860s,thisBiblewasusedbyamonasteryinsouthernGermany.Somepassagesinthebookwereextractedbymonksandreplacedwithcorrectedtext.Otherparagraphsindicatewhichpartsshouldbereadaloudatreligiousceremonies.
TheGutenbergBibleisoneoftheeightancientdigitizationprojectscompletedbyOctavoincooperationwiththeLibraryofCongress.Thecompanyalsocooperateswithdozensofotherlibraries,includingthefamousFolgerShakespeareLibraryandtheNewYorkPublicLibrary.
Thetechniciansspent4monthstakingpicturesofGutenberg's"Bible"intheLibraryofCongresspagebypagewithahigh-resolutioncamera.Theresolutionofanordinarydigitalcameraisgenerally2millionto4millionpixels,butthecamerausedtoshootthe"Bible"hasreached130millionpixels!Inordertokeepthepagesofthebooklevel,theyusedaspecialbracket,acoldmetalhalidelampforlighting,whichcanensurethatthesurfacetemperatureofthevellumoftheBibledoesnotrisebymorethanonedegreeFahrenheit,andeachexposuretakes15minutes.
Promotingworldcivilization
GutenbergdiedinMainz,Germanyin1468,buthisprintingskillsfollowedhisprintingworkersSpreadout.HisinventionlaidthecornerstoneofthedevelopmentofmodernEuropeancivilizationandwastheprecursoroftheEuropeanRenaissanceandReformation;evenwecansaythattheinventionofprintingisalsoakeytechnologythatinducedtheindustrialrevolution.AlthoughprintingoriginatedfromChina,modernprintingwastransferredfromtheWesttoChina,soGutenberghasanimportantinfluenceonthespreadofworldknowledgeandtheevolutionofcivilization.WithoutGutenberg,modernprintingwouldbedelayedforhundredsofyears,andthespreadofknowledgewouldbedelayedevenlonger,andtheworldwouldnotbetheprosperoussituationofthecontemporaryera.Gutenberg'sprintingtechnologyhasmadeprintedmatterverycheap,theprintingspeedhasalsoincreasedalot,andtheprintingvolumehasincreased.IthasgreatlyreducedilliteracyinEurope.